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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


'\ 


/ 


FROM    THE    FALL    OF    POMPEII    TO    THE 

DESTRUCTION  OF  ST.  PIERRE 


WITH  A  FULL  EXPLANATION  IN  LANGUAGE 
EASILY  UNDERSTOOD  OF  THE  CAUSES  WHICH 
LEAD  UP  TO  THESE  MOST  DISASTROUS  AND 

DESTRUCTIVE  UPHEAVALS  OF  NATURE 

A  VIVID  AND  ACCURATE  STORY  OF  THE  AWFUL 
CALAMITY  WHICH  VISITED  THE  ISLANDS  OF 
MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  VINCENT,  MAY  8,  1902, 
AS  TOLD  BY  EYE-WITNESSES  AND 

BY  OUR  SPECIAL  REPRESENTATIVE 

GENERAL  SAMUEL  A.  McALISTER 

Consul  of  the  United  States  at  Barbados 
EDITED  AND  WRITTEN  BY 

CHARLES  MORRIS,  LL.D. 

Member  of  the  Geographical  Society  of  Philadelphia  and  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
and  Author  of  many  Valuable  Treatises  on  Physical  Phenomena 


PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED  WITH  NUMEROUS  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
REPRODUCTIONS  MADE  EXPRESSLY  FOR  THIS  WORK 


P 


Entered  accordir>g  to  Act  oi 
Congress  in  the  year  1902  by 
W.  E.  SCVLL.  in  the  office 
of  the  Librarian  of  Congress, 
at  Washington,  D.  C. 

All  Rights   Reserved 


GREAT  HISTORICAL  DISASTERS 

BY 

VOLCANO  AND  EARTHQUAKE 


B.C.  285— Japan,  earthquake,    800     square     miles     engulfed,    volcanic 
mountain  formed. 

A.D.     63 — Italy,    earthquake,    Pompeii    and     Hrrculaneum     partly    de- 
stroyed, large  numbers  killed. 

A.D.     79 — Italy,  volcanic    eruption  of  Vesuvius,     Pompeii    and  Hercu- 

laneum  buried.     Most  of  their  people  killed. 
A.D.  526 — Antioch,  earthquake,  250,000  killed. 
A.D.  893 — India,  earthquake,  180,000  killed. 

1  139 — Persia,  earthquake,  100,000  killed. 

1  170 — Sicily  and  Calabria,  earthquake,  15,000  killed. 

1456 — Kingdom  of  Naples,  earthquake,  60,000  killed. 

1531 — Lisbon,  earthquake,  30,000  killed. 

1693 — Sicily,  earthquake,  93,000  killed. 

1703 — Yeddo,  earthquake,  190,000  killed. 

1731 — Peking,  earthquake,  95,000  killed. 

1746 — Lima,  earthquake,  1 8, OOO  killed. 

1755 — Lisbon,  earthquake,  40, OOO  killed. 

1772 — ^Java,  volcanic  eruption,  3000  killed. 

1773 — Guatemala,  earthquake,  33,000  killed, 

1783 — Calabria,  earthquake,  40, OOO  killed. 

1783 — Iceland,  volcanic  eruption,  10,000  killed. 

1797 — Riobamba,  Ecuador,  earthquake,  4 1,000  killed. 

1812 — Caracas,  earthquake,  10,000  killed. 

1815 — Island  of  Sumbawa,  volcanic  eruption,  12, OOO  killed. 

1822 — Aleppo,  earthquake,  120,000  killed. 

1822 — Java,  volcanic  eruption,  4000  killed. 

1853 — Shiraz,  Persia,  earthquake,  12,000  killed. 

1854 — San  Salvador,  Guatemala,  earthquake,  5000  killed. 

1857 — Kingdom  of  Naples,  earthquake,  30,000  killed. 

1859 — Quito,  earthquake,  city  destroyed,  few  lives  lost. 

1861 — Mendoza,  South  America,  earthquake,  10,000  killed. 

1868 — Ecuador  and  Peru,  earthquake,  20,000  killed. 

1883^Krakatoa,  volcanic  eruption,  36,000  killed. 

1886 — Charleston,  earthquake,  few  lives  lost. 

1891 — Island  of  Hondo,  Japan,  earthquake,  10, OOO  killed. 

1894 — Venezuela,  earthquake,  3000  killed. 

1902 — Guatemala,  earthquake,  2000  killed. 

1902 — St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  volcanic  eruption,  30, OOO  killed, 

1902 — Island  of  St.  Vincent,  volcanic  eruption,  1600  killed. 


vn 


ivi363306 


vni 


THE  HOME  OF  LUXURY 

A  Typical  Hume  of  the  Wealthy  in  the  West  Indies.         A  Sketch  by  Our  Artist, 


PREFACE. 


TACITUS  relates  how  the  palaces  and  noble  residences  of  the 
beautiful  ancient  city  of  Pompeii  were  buried  in  ashes 
fathoms  deep  when  Vesuvius  awoke  in  its  wrath  ;  and  sacred 
history  reveals  the  fate  of  the  doomed  Cities  of  the  Plain  when  a 
rain  of  fire  and  brimstone  poured  down  upon  their  spires  and 
domes.  No  record  of  the  past  comes  to  us  in  more  appalling  form 
than  these  stories  of  sudden  ruin  and  terrible  slaughter  by  the 
elemental  powers  of  the  underworld.  But  once  again,  in  our  own 
days,  these  powers  have  awakened,  and  death  and  destruction 
have  been  showered  down  upon  the  tropical  city  of  St,  Pierre,  the 
Pompeii  of  modern  times.  Dreadful  as  were  the  disasters  of  the 
past,  this  frightful  calamity  of  the  present  surpasses  them  all  in 
suddenness  and  fury.  For  days  the  ashes  of  Vesuvius  rained 
down  upon  the  famed  Roman  city  before  its  destruction  was  com- 
plete, but  minutes  sufficed  for  the  total  overthrow  of  the  fated 
West  Indian  city  and  the  hurling  into  the  valley  of  death  of  its 
thirty  thousand  doomed  inhabitants.  Here  is  a  record  of  ruin 
never  equalled  in  the  history  of  volcanic  fury,  and  one  that  should 
live  in  the  memory  of  man  as  long  as  has  that  of  the  Roman  city 
of  summer  palaces  or  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  far  remote  in  time. 
Dreadful  is  the  work  that  follows  the  clashing  of  sinking 
seas  with  the  lakes  of  liquid  fire  pent   up  in   the  earth.      Rack  and 

ruin  attend  their  meeting,  and  the  dense  solid  shell  of  the  earth  is 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

rent  asunder  by  their  might.  It  is  to  the  battle  of  fire  and  water 
in  the  depths  of  the  rocks  that  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake  are 
due,  and  when  these  demons  of  the  depths  are  at  war  man's  puny 
strength  is  as  powerless  as  that  of  the  leaf  before  the  cyclone. 
Then  terror  comes  ;  then  the  earth  trembles  to  its  heart  and  is  rent 
in  twain  ;  then  the  ashes  of  a  terrible  burning  are  cast  forth  to  bury 
fertile  plains  and  flourishing  cities;  then  showers  of  burning  rocks 
bombard  the  air  and  rivers  of  elowinof  lava  scorch  the  earth,  and 
human  hopes  and  the  results  of  man's  labor  are  whelmed  alike 
beneath  the  dread  torrent  of  death  and  dismay. 

In  ruined  St.  Pierre  a  myriad  of  dead  were  left  entombed  in 
fiery  lava  and  grey  volcanic  ash,  while  the  few  trembling  fugitives 
wandered  homeless  and  hopeless,  with  bereavement  tugging  at 
their  heart-strings  and  famine  dogging  their  errant  footsteps.  No 
human  power  could  restore  the  vanished  island  landscapes  nor 
bring  back  life  to  the  charred  cinders  of  what  were  once  strong 
men  and  noble  women.  All  that  the  benevolent  world  could  do 
was  to  send  quick  relief  to  the  starving  fugitives  and  give  fitting 
sepulture  to  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  while  offering  up  fervent 
prayers  to  the  Almighty  to  stay  the  pent-up  powers  of  the  earth  and 
save  man  from  a  renewal  of  such  death-dealing  calamities  as  that 
which  befel  the  fair  city  of  the  tropic  isles. 

Mankind  should  not  soon  forget  this  dread  disaster  that  has 
horrified  the  world.  Nothing  that  has  happened  in  modern  times 
so  amply  deserves  to  be  put  upon  record  and  thus  kept  for  present 
and  future  generations  to  read.  The  man  and  woman  who  are  not 
vitally  interested  in  this  story  of  terror  can  have  no  red  blood  in 
their  veins,  no  human  feeling  in  their  hearts.  That  it  may  not  be 
soon  forgotten  and  its  dread  events  rests  as  a  shapeless  horror  in 
our  thoughts,  this  story  of  its  intensely  stirring  incidents  has  been 


PREFACE  xi 

written.  It  is  a  story  that  should  be  read  far  and  wide  throughout 
the  land  and  the  memory  of  the  terrible  disaster  thus  fitly  pre- 
served. It  is  no  work  of  the  imagination  of  man  that  we  present,  no 
wild  flight  of  fancy  into  the  realms  of  the  terrible  and  the  appalling, 
but  sober  fact  and  actual  history ;  but  yet  more  thrilling  in  its 
details  than  anything  that  fiction  could  well  invent.  Bulwer,  in 
his  "  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  surrounds  the  fall  of  the  Roman  city 
with  all  the  glamour  of  a  story  of  the  imagination,  but  for  the 
record  of  the  "  Last  Days  of  St.  Pierre  "  sober  truth  will  suffice  ; 
fiction  could  add  no  new  interest  to  its  dread  details. 

The  fate  of  Martinique  and  St.  Vincent  cannot  fail  to  awaken 
a  desire  to  learn  of  the  work  of  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake, 
those  terrible  sisters,  in  all  times  and  all  lands  ;  the  ruin  caused  by 
the  far-famed  Vesuvius  and  Etna ;  the  fricrhtful  work  of  East 
Indian  Krakatoa  ;  the  terrible  slaughter  done  by  the  quaking  earth 
in  fifty  far-removed  regions;  the  horrors  that  have  widely  enveloped 
mankind  when  the  demonic  furies  of  the  earth's  deeps  went  forth 
"conquering  and  to  conquer,"  treading  the  nations  beneath  their 
iron  feet  and  leaving  leacrues  of  land  a  desolation  and  a  curse. 

The  ruin  of  St.  Pierre  has  served  us  as  a  text  for  many  another 
tale  of  destructive  fury  in  past  and  recent  ages  and  far  and  near 
places.  All  the  greatest  convulsions  of  the  earth  are  here  recorded, 
all  those  terrible  phenomena  of  nature  which  have  made  man 
almost  fear  to  set  his  foot  upon  the  earth,  lest  he  might  waken  the 
demons  sleeping  far  below.  The  whole  story  is  one  replete  with 
pictures  of  the  strength  and  force  of  the  elemental  powers,  before 
which  the  power  of  man  is  like  that  of  a  fragment  of  driftwood 
borne  on  the  ocean  billows  in  their  wrath. 

We  present  here  the  record  of  the  work  of  the  dread  sisters,  from 
the  tale  of  Pompeii  down  to  that  of  St.  Pierre.      No  one  can  read  it 


xu 


PREFACE 


without  a  deep  sense  of  awe  and  a  feeling  of  the  instabiHty  of 
man's  works  and  the  insecurity  of  human  life.  Truth  is  indeed 
stranger  than  fiction,  and  it  is  also  more  absorbing  and  thought- 
compelling  when  the  truth  is  not  that  of  the  petty  details  of  every- 
day life,  but  the  vast  events  that  come  to  us  once  in  a  generation. 
Such  is  the  truth  that  is  recorded  in  this  book.  Read  it  and  be 
convinced. 


MAP  SHOWING  RELATIVE  LOCATIONS  AND  DISTANCES  OF  THE  ISLANDS  OF 
MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  VINCENT  FROM    THE    AMERICAN  CONTINENT. 


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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  VOLCANO  AND  THE  EARTHQUAKE,  EARTH'S  DEMONS 

OF  DESTRUCTION 17 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGION 29 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  ISLAND  OF  MARTINIQUE  AND  THE  CITY  OF  ST.  PIERRE     39 

CHAPTER  IV. 
MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 50 

CHAPTER  V. 
AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  AND  THE  WORK  OF  RESCUE    ....      85 

CHAPTER  VI. 
ST.  VINCENT  ISLAND  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  IN  1812    .    .    .    105 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 116 

xiii 


xiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
THR  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THK  UNITED  STATES  ....     141 

CHAPTER  IX. 
A  VIVID  PICTURE  OF  THE  EAST  DAYS  OF  ST.  PIERRE  ...     154 

CHAPTER  X. 
ST.  PIERRE  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FAEE 168 

CHAPTER  XI. 
EXPERIENCES  ON  BARBADOS  AND  ST.  VINCENT 185 

CHAPTER  XII. 

EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE   DURING   AND   AFTER  THE 

DESTRUCTION  OF  ST.  PIERRE 189 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES  AND  THE  NICARAGUAN 

CANAE - 202 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
THE  ACTIVE  VOECANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 213 

CHAPTER  XV. 

UNDERGROUND  WATERS   AND   THEIR    RELATION  TO  VOE- 
CANOES  225 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  AND  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  POM- 
PEII  236 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  XVII 
ERUPTIONS  OF  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 255 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SKAPTUR   JOKUI.I.    AND    HECLA,     THE    GREAT  ICELANDIC 

VOLCANOES 277 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

VOLCANOES    OF    THE    PHILIPPINES    AND    OTHER    PACIFIC 

ISLANDS 285 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE   WONDERFUL    HAWAIIAN   CRATERS    AND    KILAUEA'S 

LAKE  OF  FIRE 304 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE    VOLCANOES    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA    AND   THE   WEST 

AFRICAN  ISLANDS 321 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

POPOCATEPETL  AND  OTHER  VOLCANOES  OF  MEXICO   AND 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 332 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
THE  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 340 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

SUBMARINE    VOLCANOES    AND    THEIR    WORK   OF   ISLAND 

BUILDING 357 


xvi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
MUD  VOLCANOES,  GEYSERS  AND  HOT  SPRINGS 367 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
THE  THEORIES  OF  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION    383 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
THE  GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES      .  ..    404 


•    '  CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE    CHARLESTON    AND   OTHER    EARTHQUAKES    OF   THE 

UNITED  STATES 4^5 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE    VERDICT     OF    SCIENCE     ON     MONT    PELEE    AND    LA 

SOUFRIERE 425 


^^^^; 
'*->^> 


^^^^ 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Volcano  and  the  Earthquake,  Earth's 
Demons  of  Destruction. 

To  most  of  us,  dwellers  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  this  terres- 
trial sphere  is  quite  a  comfortable  place  of  residence.  The 
forces  of  Nature  everywhere  and  at  all  times  surround  us, 
forces  capable,  if  loosened  from  their  bonds,  of  bringing  death  and 
destruction  to  man  and  the  work  of  his  hands.  But  usually  they 
are  mild  and  beneficent  in  their  action,  not  agents  of  destruction 
and  lords  of  elemental  misrule.  The  air,  without  whose  presence 
we  could  not  survive  a  minute,  is  usually  a  pleasant  companion,  now 
resting  about  us  in  soft  calm,  now  passing  by  in  mild  breezes.  The 
alternation  of  summer  and  winter  is  to  us  generally  an  agreeable 
relief  from  the  monotony  of  a  uniform  climate.  The  variation 
from  sunlight  to  cloud,  from  dry  weather  to  rainfall,  is  equally 
viewed  as  a  pleasant  escape  from  the  weariness  of  too  great  fixity 
of  natural  conditions.  The  change  from  day  to  night,  from  hours 
of  activity  to  hours  of  slumber,  are  other  agreeable  variations  in  the 
events  of  our  daily  life.  In  short,  a  great  pendulum  seems  to  be 
swinging  above  us,  held  in  Nature's  kindly  hand,  and  adapting  its 
movements  to  our  best  good  and  highest  enjoyment. 

But  has  Nature, — if  we  are  justified  in  personifying  the  laws 

and  forces  of  the  universe, — has  mother  Nature  really  our  pleasure 

and  benefit  in  mind,  or  does  she  merely  suffer  us  to  enjoy  life  like 

so  many  summer  insects,  until  she  is  in  the  mood  to  sweep  us  like 

a  17 


i8  EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION 

leaves  from  her  path  ?  It  must  seem  the  latter  to  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  especially  to  the  dwellers  In  certain  ill- 
conditioned  regions.  For  all  the  beneficent  powers  above  named 
may  at  a  moment's  notice  change  to  destructive  ones. 

THE    WIND    IS    A    DEMON    IN    CHAINS 

The  wind,  for  instance,  is  a  demon  in  chains.  At  times  it 
breaks  its  fetters  and  rushes  on  in  mad  fury,  rending  and  destroy- 
ing, and  sweeping  such  trifles  as  cities  and  those  who  dwell  therein 
to  common  ruin.  Sunshine  and  rain  are  subject  to  like  wild 
caprices.  The  sun  may  pour  down  burning  rays  for  weeks  and 
months  together,  scorching  the  fertile  fields,  drying  up  the  life- 
giving  streams,  bringing  famine  and  misery  to  lands  of  plenty  and 
comfort,  almost  making  the  blood  to  boil  in  our  veins.  Its  an- 
tithesis, the  rainstorm,  is  at  times  a  still  more  terrible  visitant.  From 
the  dense  clouds  pour  frightful  floods,  rushing  down  the  lofty 
hills,  sweeping  over  fertile  plains,  overflowing  broad  river  valleys, 
and,  wherever  they  go,  leaving  terror  and  death  in  their  path.  We 
may  say  the  same  of  the  alternation  of  the  seasons.  Summer,  while 
looked  forward  to  with  joyous  anticipation,  may  bring  us  only  suf- 
fering by  its  too  ardent  grasp  ;  and  winter,  often  welcomed  with  like 
pleasurable  anticipations,  may  prove  a  period  of  terror  from  cold 
and  destitution. 

Such  is  the  make-up  of  the  world  in  which  we  live,  such  the 
vagaries  of  the  forces  which  surround  us.  But  those  enumerated 
are  not  the  whole.  Can  we  say,  with  a  stamp  of  the  foot  upon  the 
solid  earth,  "  Here  at  least  I  have  something  I  can  trust  ;  let  the 
winds  blow  and  the  rains  descend,  let  the  summer  scorch  and  the 
winter  chill,  the  good  earth  still  stands  firm  beneath  me,  aqd  of  it 
at  least  I  am  sure?" 


EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION  19 

Who  says  so  speaks  hastily  and  heedlessly,  for  the  earth  can 
show  itself  as  unstable  as  the  air,  and  our  solid  footing  become  as 
insecure  as  the  deck  of  a  ship  laboring  in  a  storm  at  sea.  The 
powers  of  the  atmosphere,  great  as  they  are  and  mighty  for  destruction 
as  they  may  become,  are  at  times  surpassed  by  those  which  abide 
within  the  earth,  deep  laid  in  the  so-called  everlasting  rocks,  slum- 
bering often  through  generations,  but  at  any  time  likely  to  awaken 
in  wrath,  to  lift  the  earth  into  quaking  billows  like  those  of  the  sea, 
or  pour  forth  torrents  of  liquid  fire  that  How  in  glowing  and  burn- 
inor  rivers  over  leagues  of  ruined  land.  Such  is  the  earth  with 
which  we  have  to  deal,  such  the  ruthless  powers  of  nature  that 
spread  around  us  and  lurk  beneath  us,  such  the  terrific  forces  which 
only  bide  their  time  to  break  forth  and  sweep  too-confident  man 
from  the  earth's  smilingf  face. 

THE    SUBTERRANEAN    POWERS 

The  subterranean  powers  here  spoken  of,  those  we  had  de- 
nominated earth's  demons  of  destruction,  are  the  volcano  and  the 
earthquake,  the  great  moulding  forces  of  the  earth,  tearing  down 
to  rebuild,  rending  to  reconstitute,  and  in  this  elemental  work 
often  bringing  ruin  to  man's  boasted  fanes  and  palaces. 

No  one  who  has  ever  seen  a  volcano  or  "  burning  mountain" 
casting  forth  steam,  huge  red-hot  stones,  smoke,  cinders  and  lava, 
can  possibly  forget  the  grandeur  of  the  spectacle.  At  night  it  is 
doubly  terrible,  when  the  darkness  shows  the  red-hot  lava  rolling 
in  glowing  streams  down  the  mountain's  side.  At  times,  indeed, 
the  volcano  is  quiet,  and  only  a  little  smoke  curls  from  its  top. 
Even  this  may  cease,  and  the  once  burning  summit  may  be  covered 
over  with  trees  and  grass,  like  any  other  hill.  But  deep  down  in  the 
earth  the  gases  and  pent-up  steam,are  ever  preparing  to  force  their 


20  '       EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION 

way  upward  through  the  mountain,  and  to  carry  with  them  dis- 
solved rocks,  and  the  stones  which  block  their  passage.  Some- 
times, while  all  is  calm  and  beautiful  on  the  mountains,  suddenly 
deep-sounding  noises  are  heard,  the  ground  shakes,  and  a  vast 
torrent  tears  its  way  through  the  bowels  of  the  volcano,  and  is 
flung  hundreds  of  feet  high  in  the  air,  and,  falling  again  to  the 
earth,  destroys  every  living  thing  for  miles  around. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  earthquake  as  with  the  volcano.  The 
surface  of  the  earth  is  never  quite  still.  Tremors  are  constantly 
passing  onward  which  can  be  distinguished  by  delicate  instruments, 
but  only  rarely  are  these  of  sufficient  force  to  become  noticeable, 
except  by  instrumental  means.  At  intervals,  however,  the  power 
beneath  the  surface  raises  the  ground  in  long,  billow-like  motions, 
before  which,  when  of  violent  character,  no  edifice  or  human  habita- 
tion can  for  a  moment  stand.  The  earth  is  frequently  rent  asunder, 
great  fissures  and  cavities  being  formed.  The  course  of  rivers  is 
changed  and  the  waters  are  swallowed  up  by  fissures  rent  in  the 
surface,  while  ruin  impends  in  a  thousand  forms.  The  cities 
become  death  pits  and  the  cultivated  fields  are  buried  beneath 
floods  of  liquid  mud.  Fortunately  these  convulsions,  alike  of  the 
earthquake  and  volcano,  are  comparative  rarities  and  are  confined 
to  limited  regions  of  the  earth's  surface.  What  do  we  know  of 
those  deep-lying  powers,  those  vast  buried  forces  dwelling  in  uneasy 
isolation  beneath  our  feet  ?  With  all  our  science  we  are  but  a  step 
beyond  the  ancients,  to  whom  these  were  the  Titans,  great  rebel 
giants  whom  Jupiter  overthrew  and  bound  under  the  burning 
mountains,  and  whose  throes  of  agony  shook  the  earth  in  quaking 
convulsions.  To  us  the  volcanic  crater  is  the  mouth  from  which 
comes  the  fiery  breath  of  demon  powers  which  dwell  far  down  in 
the  earth's  crust.     The  Titans  themselves  were  dwarfs  beside  these 


EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION  ■        21 

mighty  agents  of  destruction  whose  domain  extends  for  thousands 
of  miles  beneath  the  earth's  surface  and  which  in  their  convulsions 
shake  whole  continents  at  once.  Such  was  the  case  in  18 12,  when 
the  eruption  of  Mont  Soufriere  on  St.  Vincent,  as  told  in  a  later 
chapter,  formed  merely  the  closing  event  in  a  series  of  earthquakes 
which  had  made  themselves  felt  under  thousands  of  miles  of  land. 

ANCIENT    AWE    OF    VOLCANOES 

In  olden  times  volcanoes  were  regarded  with  superstitious  awe, 
and  it  would  have  been  considered  highly  impious  to  make  any 
investigation  of  their  actions.  We  are  told  by  Virgil  that  Mt.  Etna 
marks  the  spot  where  the  gods  in  their  anger  buried  Enceladus, 
one  of  the  rebellious  giants.  To  our  myth-making  ancestors  one 
of  the  volcanoes  of  the  Mediterranean,  set  on  a  small  island  of  the 
Lipa  group,  was  the  workshop  of  Vulcan,  the  god  of  fire,  within 
whose  depths  he  forged  the  thunderbolts  of  the  gods.  From  below 
came  sounds  as  of  a  mighty  hammer  on  a  vast  anvil.  Through  the 
mountain  vent  came  the  black  smoke  and  lurid  elow  from  the  fires 
of  Vulcan's  forge.  This  old  myth  is  in  many  respects  more  con- 
sonant with  the  facts  of  nature  than  myths  usually  are.  In  agree- 
ment with  the  theory  of  its  internal  forces,  the  mountain  in  question 
was  given  the  name  of  Volcano.  To-day  it  is  scarcely  known  at 
all,  but  its  name  clings  to  all  the  fire-breathing  mountains  of  the 
earth. 

As  before  said,  at  the  present  day  we  are  little  in  advance  of 
the  ancients  in  actual  knowledge  of  what  is  going  on  so  far  beneath 
our  feet.  We  speak  of  forces  where  they  spoke  of  fettered  giants, 
but  can  only  form  theories  where  they  formed  myths.  Is  the 
earth's  centre  made  up  of  liquid  fire  ?  Does  its  rock  crust  resemble 
the   thick  ice  crust   on  the   Arctic  Seas,  or  is   the  earth,  as  later 


22  EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION 

scientists  believe,  solid  to  the  core?  Is  it  heated  so  fiercely,  miles 
below  our  feet,  that  at  every  release  of  pressure  the  solid  rock 
bursts  into  molten  lava?  Is  the  steam  from  the  contact  of  under- 
ground rivers  and  deep-lying  fires  the  origin  of  the  terrible  rending 
powers  of  the  volcano's  depths  ?  Truly  we  can  answer  none  of  these 
questions  with  assurance,  and  can  only  guess  and  conjecture  from 
the  few  facts  open  to  us  what  lies  concealed  far  beneath. 

RARITY    OF    ANCIENT    ACCOUNTS 

In  the  history  of  earthquakes  nothing  is  more  remarkable  than 
the  extreme  fewness  of  those  recorded  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  in  comparison  with  those  that  have  been  registered 
since  that  time.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  before  the 
birth  of  Christ  only  a  small  portion  of  the  globe  was  inhabited  by 
those  likely  to  make  a  record  of  natural  events.  The  vast  apparent 
increase  in  the  number  of  earthquakes  in  recent  times  is  owing  to  a 
greater  knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface  and  to  the  spread  of  civil- 
ization over  lands  once  inhabited  by  savages.  The  same  is  to  be 
said  of  volcanic  eruptions,  which  also  have  apparently  increased 
greatly  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  There  may  possi- 
bly have  been  a  natural  increase  in  these  phenomena,  but  this  is 
hardly  probable,  the  change  being  more  likely  due  to  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  observers. 

The  structure  of  a  volcano  is  very  different  from  that  of  other 
mountains,  really  consisting  of  layers  of  lava  and  volcanic  ashes, 
alternating  with  each  other  and  all  sloping  away  from  the  center. 
These  elevations,  in  fact,  are  formed  in  a  different  manner  from 
ordinary  mountains.  The  latter  have  been  uplifted  by  the  influence  of 
pressure  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  but  the  volcano  is  an  immediate 
result  of  the  explosive  force  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  mountain 


EAR TH '  5  DEMONS  OE  DES TR  UCTION  2 3 

being  gradually  built  up  by  the  lava  and  other  materials  which  it 
has  flung  up  from  below.  In  this  way  mountains  of  immense 
height  and  remarkable  regularity  have  been  formed.  Mount  Orizabo, 
near  the  City  of  Mexico,  for  instance,  is  a  remarkably  regular  cone, 
undoubtedly  formed  in  this  way,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Mount 
Mayon,  on  the  Island  of   Luzon. 

In  many  cases  the  irregularity  of  the  volcano  is  due  to  subse- 
quent action  of  its  forces,  which  may  blow  the  mountain  itself  to 
pieces.  In  the  case  of  Krakatoa,  in  the  East  Indies,  for  instance, 
the  whole  mountain  was  rent  into  fragments,  which  were  flung  as 
dust  miles  high  into  the  air.  The  main  point  we  wish  to  indicate 
is  that  volcanoes  are  never  formed  by  ordinary  elevating  forces  and 
that  they  differ  in  this  way  from  all  other  mountains.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  have  been  piled  up  like  rubbish  heaps,  resembling  the 
small  mountains  of  coal  dust  near  the  mouths  of  anthracite  mines. 

It  is  to  the  burning  heat  of  the  earth's  crust  and  the  influence 
of  pressure,  and  more  largely  to  the  influx  of  water  to  the  molten 
rocks  which  lie  miles  below  the  surface,  that  these  convulsions  of 
nature  are  due.  Water,  on  reaching  these  overheated  strata,  explodes 
into  volumes  of  steam,  and  if  there  is  no  free  vent  to  the  surface, 
it  is  apt  to  rend  the  very  mountain  asunder  in  its  efforts  to  escape. 
Such  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  eruption  of  Krakatoa, 
and  was  probably  the  case  also  in  the  recent  case  of  Mt.  Pelee. 

GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    ERUPTIONS 

If  we  should  seek  to  give  a  general  description  of  volcanic 
eruptions,  it  would  be  in  some  such  words  as  follows  :  An  eruption 
is  usually  preceded  by  earthquakes  which  affect  the  whole  sur- 
rounding country,  and  associated  with  which  are  underground  explo- 
sions that  seem  like  the  sound  of  distant  artillery.     The  mountain 


24  EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION 

quivers  with  internal  convulsions,  due  to  the  efforts  of  its  confined 
forces  to  find  an  opening.  The  drying  up  of  wells  and  disappear- 
ance of  springs  are  apt  to  take  place,  the  water  sinking  downward 
through  cracks  newly  made  in  the  rocks.  Finally  the  fierce  un- 
chained energy  rends  an  opening  through  the  crater  and  an  eruption 
begins.  It  comes  usually  with  a  terrible  burst  that  shakes  the 
mountain  to  its  foundation  ;  explosions  following  rapidly  and  with 
increasing  violence,  while  steam  issues  and  mounts  upward  in  a  lofty 
column.  The  steam  and  escaping  gases  in  their  fierce  outbreaks  hurl 
up  into  the  air  great  quantities  of  solid  rock  torn  from  the  sides  of 
the  opening.  The  huge  blocks,  meeting  each  other  in  their  rise 
and  fall,  are  gradually  broken  and  ground  into  minute  fragments, 
forming  dust  or  so.-called  ashes,  often  of  extreme  fineness,  and  in 
such  quantities  as  frequently  to  blot  out  the  light  of  the  sun.  There 
is  another  way  in  which  a  great  deal  of  volcanic  dust  is  made  ;  the 
lava  is  full  of  steam,  which  in  its  expansion  tears  the  molten  rock 
into  atoms,   often  converting  it  into  the  finest  dust. 

The  eruption  of  Mt.  Skaptar,  in  Iceland,  in  1783,  sent  up  such 
volumes  of  dust  that  the  atmosphere  was  loaded  with  it  for  months, 
and  it  was  carried  to' the  northern  part  of  Scotland,  600  miles  away, 
in  such  quantities  as  to  destroy  the  crops.  During  the  eruption  of 
Tomboro,  in  the  East  Indies,  in  181 5,  so  great  was  the  quantity  of 
dust  thrown  up  that  it  caused  darkness  at  midday  in  Java  300  miles 
away  and  covered  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  Float- 
ing pumice  formed  a  layer  on  the  ocean  surface  two  and  a  half  feet 
in  thickness,  through  which  vessels  had  difficulty  in  forcing  their  way. 

The  steam  which  rises  in  large  volumes  into  the  air  may  be- 
come suddenly  condensed  with  the  chill  of  the  upper  atmosphere 
and  fall  as  rain,  torrents  of  which  often  follow  an  eruption.  The 
rain,  falling  throug^h  the  clouds  of  volcanic  dust,  bring-s  it  to  the 


EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION  25 

earth  as  liquid  mud,  which  pours  in  thick  streams  down  the  sides  of 
the  mountain.  The  torrents  of  flowing  mud  are  sometimes  on  such 
a  great  scale  that  large  towns,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  great  city 
of  Herculaneum,  may  be  completely  buried  beneath  them.  Over 
this  city  the  mud  accumulated  to  the  depth  of  over  70  feet.  In 
addition  to  these  phenomena,  molten  lava  often  flows  from  the  lip  of 
the  crater,  occasionally  in  vast  quantities.  In  the  Icelandic  erup- 
tion of  1783  the  lava  streams  were  so  great  in  quantity  as  to  fill 
river  gorges  600  ft.  deep  and  200  ft.  wide,  and  to  extend  over  an 
open  plain  to  a  distance  of  12  to  15  miles,  forming  lakes  of 
lava  100  feet  deep.  The  volcanoes  of  Hawaii  often  send  forth 
streams  of  lava  which  cover  an  area  of  over  100  square  miles  to 
a  great  depth. 

GREAT    OUTFLOWS    OF    LAVA 

In  the  course  of  ages  lava  outflows  of  this  kind  have  built  up 
in  Hawaii  a  volcanic  mountain  estimated  to  contain  enough  material 
to  cover  the  whole  of  the  United  States  w4th  a  layer  of  rock  50  feet 
deep.  These  great  outflows  of  lava  are  not  confined  to  mountains, 
but  take  place  now  and  then  from  openings  in  the  ground,  or  from 
long  cracks  in  the  surface  rocks.  Occasionally  great  eruptions 
have  taken  place  beneath  the  ocean's  surface,  throwing  up  material 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  orm  new  islands. 

The  formation  of  mud  is  not  confined  to  the  method  given,  but 
great  quantities  of  this  plastic  material  flow  at  times  from  volcanic 
craters.  In  the  year  1691  Imbaburu,  one  of  the  peaks  of  the  Andes, 
sent  out  floods  of  mud  which  contained  dead  fish  in  such  abund- 
ance that  their  decay  caused  a  fever  in  the  vicinity.  The  volcanoes 
of  Java  have  often  buried  large  tracts  of  fertile  country  under 
volcanic  mud. 


26  EARTH'S  DEMONS  OF  DESTRUCTION 

An  observation  of  volcanoes  shows  us  that  they  have  three 
well  marked  phases  of  action.  The  first  of  these  is  the  state  of 
permanent  eruption,  as  in  case  of  the  volcano  of  Stromboli  in  the 
Mediterranean.  This  state  is  not  a  dangerous  one,  since  the  steam, 
escaping  continually,  acts  as  a  safety  valve.  The  second  stage  is 
one  of  milder  activity  with  an  occasional  somewhat  violent  erup- 
tion ;  this  is  apt  to  be  dangerous,  though  not  often  very  greatly  so. 
The  safety  valve  is  partly  out  of  order.  The  third  phase  is  one  in 
which  long  periods  of  repose,  sometimes  lasting  for  centuries,  are 
followed  by  eruptions  of  intense  energy.  These  are  often  of 
extreme  violence  and  cause  widespread  destruction.  In  this  case 
the  safety  valve  has  failed  to  work  and  the  boiler  bursts. 

OFTEN  REST  FOR  LONG  TERMS  OF  YEARS 

Such  are  the  general  features  of  action  in  the  vast  powers 
which  dwell  deep  beneath  the  surface,  harmless  in  most  parts  of  the 
earth,  frightfully  perilous  in  others.  Yet  even  here  they  often  rest 
for  long  terms  of  years  in  seeming  apathy,  until  men  gather  above 
their  lurking  places  in  multitudes,  heedless  or  ignorant  of  the 
sleeping  demons  that  bide  their  time  below.  Their  time  is  sure  to 
come,  after  years,  perhaps  after  centuries.  Suddenly  tha solid  earth 
begins  to  tremble  and  quake  ;  roars  as  of  one  of  the  buried  giants 
of  old  strike  all  men  with  dread  ;  then,  with  a  fierce  convulsion,  a 
mountain  is  rent  in  twain  and  vast  torrents  of  steam,  burning  rock, 
and  blinding  dust  are  hurled  far  upward  into  the  air,  to  fall  again 
and  bury  cities,  perhaps,  with  all  their  inhabitants  in  indiscriminate 
ruin  and  death.  A  thrilling  instance  of  this  is  that  which  came 
upon  the  beautiful  West  Indian  Island  of  Martinique  in  May,  1902, 
the  story  of  which  it  is  our  purpose  to  relate. 


Lz 


isp.i.|;:l||f;:::|: 


■'*.'--' -r't-T-.,-    'v;^* 


*:^;SSJ. 


?8 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Volcanoes  of  the  West  Indian  Regions. 

THE  volcanic  outburst  in  the  Caribbean  Islands,  which  has  so 
astonished  the  world,  can  hardly  have  been  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise for  any  geologist.  In  truth  it  should  have  been  ex- 
pected, although  nobody  could  have  predicted  the  time  when  it 
would  occur,  or  the  exact  point  that  would  be  most  affected,  nor, 
indeed,  the  extent  of  the  disaster.  Our  knowledge  of  the  earth^s 
crust  is  too  incomplete  for  that. 

Still  the  character  of  the  chain  of  islands  runnino-  southward 
from  Guadeloupe  and  forming  the  eastern  border  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea  was  well  enough  understood  to  enable  any  geologist  to  affirm 
the  existence  of  danger  there.  That  line  is  notoriously  one  of  the 
danger  points  of  the  earth.  Within  a  distance  of  a  very  few 
hundred  miles  are  ranged  three  or  four  volcanic  vents  whose  ap- 
pearance and  history  show  that  they  are  fully  the  rivals  of  Vesu- 
vius in  destructive  power.  Being  situated  on  islands,  and  conse- 
quently surrounded  on  all  sides  by  water,  they  have  the  proper 
environment  to  induce  an  outbreak  whenever  other  circumstances 
are  favorable  to  such  an  occurence. 

Moreover,  the  Caribbean  Sea  bottom  is  subject  to  earthquake 

disturbances,    which   are,    perhaps,    the   direct  result   of    the   slow 

rising    of   the   neighboring    coast    of  South    America.      Wherever 

such  an  elevation  is  in  progress  a  strain  is  necessarily  brought  to 

bear  upon  the  rocks  composing  the  underlying  strata  of  the  earth's 

29 


30  THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS 

crust  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rising  area,  and  every  now  and  then  a 
sudden  slip,  or  break,  is  certain  to  occur,  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  new  fissures  and  the  transmission  of  shocks  which  may  act  like 
the  pulling  of  a  trigger  in  releasing  pent-up  forces  of  vast  magni- 
tude. 

Leeward  and  Windward  are  the  names  given  by  mariners  to 
the  islands  comp)rising  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lying  to  the  southeast 
of  San  Domingo  and  Porto  Rico,  including  Guadeloupe,  Dominica 
and  Martinique  to  the  north  or  Leeward,  and  Barbados,  St.  Lucia, 
Saint  Vincent,  Grenadine,  Grenada  and  others  to  the  south,  called 
the  Windward  group.  These  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
many  of  them  possess  occasionally  active  volcanoes.  They  are 
looked  upon  as  forming  part  of  that  great  volcanic  range  which 
extends  along  the  Pacific  slope  of  America  from  Alaska  to  Chili. 

THE    FRENCH    WEST    INDIES 

Of  the  islands  named,  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  belong  to 
the  French  ;  the  others  are  English  possessions.  Martinique,  the 
central  scene  of  the  catastrophe  that  is  threatening  all  of  the  islands 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  was  a  prosperous  colony.  It  had,  previous  to 
the  late  disaster,  a  population  of  about  175,000,  including  about 
10,000  white  persons.  The  natives  have  been  called  by  Lafcadio 
Hearn,  the  author,  who  spent  two  years  among  them,  "the  finest 
mixed  race  in  the  West  Indies,"  The  women  are  beautiful  and  the 
men  tall,  well  formed  and  strong. 

Of  the  4,500  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  St.  Lucia  not  more 
than  2,000  are  white.  The  majority  of  the  white  residents  are 
French  or  of  French  origin.  The  natives  are  negroes  and  half- 
breeds  of  all  shades  of  color,  from  full  black  to  the  nearly  white 
octoroons.     The  original  inhabitants  were  Caribs  when  Columbus 


THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS        31 

discovered  the  island  in  1502.  It  was  settled  by  the  English  in 
1639.  There  were  many  struggles  between  the  French  and  the 
English  for  its  possession,  first  one  power,  then  another,  governing 
the  island  until  1803,  when  i^  passed  finally  under  British  authority. 
Two  cone-shaped  rocks  rise  out  of  the  sea  to  a  height  of  3,000 
feet,  and  near  these  are  the  craters  of  the  long  extinct  volcanoes 
that  now  have  entered  upon  a  dangerous  activity.  Near  them  are 
the  sulphur  pits  so  often  seen  in  mountains  of  the  West  Indies,  that 
often  send  forth  steam,  reminding  the  visitors  that  the  subterranean 
fires  have  never  been  entirely  extinguished. 

ST.    VINCENT    AND    ITS    CAPITAL 

At  the  northwest  corner  of  the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  one  of 
the  British  West  Indies,  rises  the  volcano  La  Soufriere,  that  now 
threatens  its  destruction.  It  has  often  belched  forth  death  to  the 
inhabitants,  but  of  late  years  has  shown  no  signs  of  activity. 

On  the  northeast  corner,  across  the  bay,  and  a  few  miles  away 
from  La  Soufriere,  is  Kingstown,  the  capital  of  the  island,  with  a 
population  of  about  6,000.  The  others  of  the  35,000  souls  living 
on  the  island,  which  is  only  seventeen  miles  long,  inhabit  the  moun- 
tains, and  it  is  upon  them  that  the  present  disaster  will  fall  most 
heavily.  Nearly  all  of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes  or  half-breeds. 
About  4,000  whites  live  on  the  island. 

The  population  of  Dominica  is  about  35,000.  The  capital  is 
Roseau.  The  island  is  twenty-nine  miles  long  and  sixteen  miles  in 
width.  Its  surface  is  covered  by  volcanic  rocks,  and  hot  sulphur 
springs  abound. 

Grenada  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  West  Indian  is- 
lands. Its  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  rugged  and  higher  than 
those  of  the  other  islands,  traverse  it  from  north  to  south.  It  has 
a  population  of  about  65,000. 


32  THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS 

Guadeloupe  is  really  two  islands — that  to  the  north,  or  Guade- 
loupe proper,  being  mountainous  and  wild.  The  southern  island  is 
low  and  marshy.  The  population  of  the  island  is  about  135,000. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  French  colonies  in  the  West  Indies. 

Trinidad,  a  partly  volcanic  island,  which  lies  south  of  the  An- 
tilles, is  famous  for  its  lake  of  semi-liquid  pitch  or  asphaltum — one 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  natural  productions. 

THE    THEORY    OF    TIDAL    STRAIN 

There  are  some  scientists  who  ascribe  the  catastrophe  to  the 
tidal  strain  produced  by  the  moon,  which  happened  on  the  very 
day  of  the  blowing  up  of  Mont  Pelee  to  be  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun  and  close  to  its  perigee  point,  or  point  of  nearest  approach 
to  the  earth. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  such  circumstances  the  combined  tidal 
power  of  the  sun  and  moon  has  nearly  its  greatest  value,  this 
producing  the  highest  tides,  those  known  as  spring  tides.  While 
the  effect  upon  the  crust  of  the  earth  must  be  relatively  slight,  yet 
it  might  be  conceived  to  act  in  the  manner  of  the  pressure  that 
causes  a  trigger  to  fall  and  thereby  let  loose  the  giant  force  stored 
up  in  a  cannon. 

It  should  be  said,  however,  with  regard  to  the  theory  that 
earthquakes  and  volcanic  phenomena  connected  with  them  are 
more  liable  to  occur  v/hen  the  moon  is  in  conjunction  or  opposition 
to  the  sun  than  at  other  times,  all  efforts  to  find  a  satisfactory  basis 
for  the  theory  in  the  history  of  seismic  phenomena  have  been  here- 
tofore unsuccessful.  The  evidence,  in  other  words,  is  self-contra- 
dictory. Not  long  ago  Mr.  Egmetis,  of  the  observatory  at  Athens, 
Greece,  made  public  a  report  bearing  on  this  question,  and  show- 
ing that  it  had  been  impossible  to  trace  a  connection  between  the 
positions  of  the  moon  and  the  hundreds  of  earthquake  tremors  felt 


THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS         33 

in  Greece  during  the  year  1900.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fact 
that  the  Martinique  explosion  occurred  at  new  moon,  and  when  the 
moon  was  nearly  in  perigee,  may  be  taken,  as  far  as  it  goes,  as  an 
instance  in  favor  of  the  theory. 

But  whatever  the  remote  causes  of  the  outburst  may  have 
been,  it  is  dif^cult  to  believe  that  the  immediate  cause  can  have 
been  anything  else  than  a  gigantic  explosion  of  steam  in  the 
bowels  of  the  volcano.  It  is  known  that  water  penetrates  to  con- 
siderable depths  in  the  earth,  even  in  the  middle  of  continents. 
Wherever  crevices  and  caverns  in  the  rocks  exist  water  is  to  be 
found  deep  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Huge  streams  that  may 
almost  be  described  as  rivers  flow  deep  under  some  of  the  dry  and 
barren  lava  fields  and  semi-deserts  of  the  far  West.  Every  farmer 
who  drives  a  well  to  procure  water  for  his  stock  where  no  surface 
streams  exist  has  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the  wonderful 
veining  of  the  earth's  crust  with  hidden  water  channels. 

This  water  penetrates  as  deep  as  the  gradually  increasing  heat 
of  the  planet  will  permit  it  to  do  while  retaining  the  liquid  form.  If 
it  encounters  no  excessively  heated  area  of  rocks  capable  of  sud- 
denly turning  a  great  quantity  of  it  into  steam  it  causes  no  damages, 
and  if  slowly  vaporized  recondenses  into  water  again  before  it 
reaches  the  surface. 

THE    EFFECT    OF    STEAM    IN    VOLCANIC    ACTION 

But  when,  as  occurs  at  many  points  near  the  edges  of  the 
ocean  basins — and,  among  other  places,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea — the  water  that  has  leaked  down  from  above,  either 
from  rivers  or  from  the  superincumbent  seas,  encounters  deep 
cracks  and  fissures  which  allow  it  to  penetrate  to  a  region  where 
the  heat    is  sufificient  to  liquefy  solid    bodies,   it  is  changed  into 

superheated    steam — a  thing    whose    resistless    power    defies    the 
3 


34  THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS 

misfhtiest  bonds  ;  and  if  the  fissures  are  of  considerable  extent  and 
the  quantity  of  water  is  also  great,  even  the  rocky  crust  of  the 
globe  cannot  withstand  the  explosive  energy  that  is  thus  brought 
to  bear  upon  It.  This  action  and  influence  of  subterranean  waters 
will  be  found  considered  more  at  length  in  a  later  chapter. 

But,  it  may  be  asked,  why  do  not  such  explosions  take  place 
anywhere,  at  random,  instead  of  through  the  crater  of  an  existing 
volcano  ?  The  reply  is  that  sometimes  they  do  take  place  at  ran- 
dom, if  such  an  expression  can  properly  be  applied  to  a  natural 
event,  and  when  that  happens  we  see  the  phenomenon  of 
the  formation  of  a  new  volcano.  But  ordinarily  the  explosion 
occurs  through  the  vent,  or  throat,  of  an  already  existing  volcano, 
because  the  weakest  points,  or  lines,  in  the  earth's  crust  are  the 
places  where  new  fissures  are  likely  to  be  formed,  and  along  these 
lines  of  weakness  the  volcanoes  stand  like  rows  of  safety  valves. 

Such  a  fissure  is  believed  to  exist  along  the  curving  course  of 
the  Caribbean  Islands,  the  fact  being  indicated  by  their  general 
volcanic  origin  and  the  line  of  volcanoes  which  follow  this  remark- 
ably regular  crescent-like  curve.  Each  island  of  this  chain,  begin- 
ning with  Saba  in  the  north  and  ending  with  Grenada  in  the  south, 
is  volcanic  in  character,  and  the  chord  of  the  arc  they  describe  is 
about  360  miles  in  length. 

THE    REMAINS    OF    A    LOST    CONTINENT 

Lying  along  the  northern  curve,  oceanward,  is  a  fragmentary 
chain  of  isles  and  islets  which  are  coralline  in  structure — at  least 
above  the  sea,  though  they  may  be  erected  upon  volcanic  bases 
far  beneath.  Each  island  is  practically  a  single  mountain  thrown 
up  from  the  ocean  depths,  the  altitudes  varying  from  2,000  to  5,000 
feet,  and  so  evidently  of  volcanic   origin   that   one  may   not  err  in 


THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS        35 

ascribing  them  to  Vulcan's  mighty  hand.  Mountain-tops,  spires, 
pinnacles,  thrust  up  through  the  sea,  suggest  the  remains  of  a  lost 
continent,  or  perhaps  the  beginnings  of  a  newer  one.  A  far-west 
Atlantis  may  yet  appear,  out  of  the  debris  of  wrecked  isles,  a  resur- 
rected continent,  lifting  its  head  above  the  sea,  and  verifying  the 
Platonian  legend. 

Should  these  islands  be  destroyed,  and,  in  effect,  disappear, 
one  cannot  conceive  of  their  places  being  taken  by  any  more  beau- 
tiful ones.  As  every  mountain  shoots  upward  abruptly  to  an  altitude 
that  gives  it  practically  the  range  of  two  climatic  zones,  temperate 
and  tropical,  every  beautiful  aspect  of  vegetation  may  be  noted 
here.  The  sides  of  each  partially  submerged  volcano,  from  base  to 
peak,  and  even  some  of  the  crater-walls,  are  hung  with  richest  tapes- 
tries in  varying  shades  of  green. 

INDUBITABLE    EVIDENCE    OF    VOLCANIC    ACTION 

The  northernmost  of  the  volcanic  islands  is  Saba,  a  mountain 
rising  above  the  ocean  floor  nobody  knows  how  many  thousand 
feet,  but  extending  about  2,800  feet  above  water.  It  has  been  for 
many  years  a  Dutch  possession,  and  is  the  smallest  property  of 
Holland  in  the  West  Indies,  perhaps  in  the  world,  having  an  area 
of  about  seven  square  miles  only,  and  supporting  not  more  than 
1,800  inhabitants.  The  majority  of  the  population  is  white,  a  rare 
thing  in  these  islands.  There  are  Dutch  residents  in  other  West 
Indian  islands,  but  they  are  not  the  sturdy,  clear-complexioned 
Dutch  of  Saba  Island.  The  secret  of  their  sturdiness  and  their 
healthfulness  is  found  in  the  altitude  at  which  they  live  ;  not  one  of 
them  less  than  800  or  900  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  town  of  Bottom,  960  feet  above  the  sea,  where  most  of 
the  people  live,  is  so  called  because   it  lies  at  the  bottom  of  an 


36         THE  VOLCANOES  OP  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS 

extinct  crater ;  at  least,  it  is  supposed  to  be  extinct,  but  this,  as 
recent  events  have  shown,  is  not  too  sure  a  thing  to  trust  to  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Indubitable  evidence  of  volcanic  action  is  to  be  found  in  the 
vast  deposits  of  crude  sulphur,  which  is  mined  out  of  the  cliffs 
hundreds  of  feet  above  the  sea  and  sent  down  to  vessels'  holds  by 
means  of  a  wire  tramway.  As  there  is  no  harbor  in  Saba,  so'  there 
is  no  roadway  for  vehicle  or  beast  of  burden,  all  the  freight  arriving 
there  and  all  the  produce  shipped  thence  being  carried  on  the  backs 
of  men  and  women. 

Next  neighbor  to  Saba  is  the  Dutch  island  of  Saint  Eustatius, 
better  known  in  that  region  as  Statia.  It  has  seen  better  days,  but 
could  not  be  more  beautiful,  at  least  so  far  as  its  mountain  cone  is 
concerned,  which  is  about  1,500  feet  in  height  and  perfectly  sym- 
metrical. Its  crater  is  covered  with  gigantic  forest  trees.  Statia 
was  once  very  wealthy,  but  is  now  poor  and  forgotten,  though  it  is 
celebrated  as  the  first  place  in  which  a  foreign  Power  saluted  the 
American  flag.      It  has  no  harbor,  only  a  roadstead. 

SEVERAL    VOLCANIC    ISLANDS 

Of  these  islands  none  is  more  attractive  from  the  sea  than 
Saint  Kitts,  named  by  Columbus  after  his  patron  saint,  Christopher. 
He  discovered  it,  as  indeed  all  these  islands  of  the  northern  Carib- 
bees,  in  the  year  1493.  This  island  was  the  original  home  of  the 
buccaneers.  Off  its  leeward  coast  a  great  naval  battle  was  fought 
between  English  and  French.  Across  a  narrow  channel  rises  the 
symmetrical  peak  of  Nevis,  which,  like  Mount  Misery  on  St.  Kitts,  is 
forest-clad  and  with  a  fertile,  verdant  belt  around  it.  Nevis  was  the 
birthplace  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  here  Lord  Nelson  was  mar- 
ied.    Next  south  of  Nevis  lies  Montserrat,  smaller  yet,  and  between 


'^S^^^^^f^S^i^ 


CATHEDRAL,  ST.  PIERRE 
This  was  one  of  the  Prominent  Kdifices  of  the  City. 


THE   VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS        37 

the  two  islands  the  great  rock  of  Redonda,  a  pinnacle  shooting  up 
out  of  the  sea.  Montserrat  has  a  fine  crater  or  "  soufriere,"  and 
before  it  was  devastated  by  a  hurricane  a  few  years  ago  was  covered 
with  groves  of  limes.  Nevis  has  no  well-defined  crater,  but  has 
numerous  hot  and  mineral  springs. 

The  island  next  southerly,  Guadeloupe,  is  the  largest  of  the 
volcanic  chain.  It  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage,  in  1493,  and  he,  like  all  voyagers  who  have  come  after  him, 
was  enamored  of  its  scenery,  speaking  enthusiastically  of  its  mag- 
nificent forests  and  waterfalls.  The  town  of  Basse  Terre  on  the 
coast  line  has  an  open  roadstead,  while  Point-a-Pitre,  the  commer- 
cial port,  has  a  fairly  good  harbor.  In  1843  Guadeloupe  had  its 
disaster,  not  in  the  form  of  a  volcanic  eruption,  but  of  an  earth- 
quake of  destructive  force,  5,000  lives  being  lost  in  Point-a-Pitre 
alone,  while  devastation  extended  widely  over  the  island. 

Dominica,  about  thirty  miles  south  of  Guadeloupe,  is  the  most 
picturesque  of  the  chain,  containing  grand  and  gloomy  mountains, 
deep  gorges,  extensive  forests,  waterfalls,  hot  springs,  a  "boiling 
lake  "  in  its  crater,  and  many  wonders  of  the  faunal  and  botanical 
world.  Dominica's  only  good  harbor,  that  of  Prince  Ruperts,  is 
unused  on  account  of  the  insalubrity  of  the  adjacent  country,  while 
Roseau,  the  commercial  port,  is  an  open  roadstead.  Mont  Diab- 
lotin  in  Dominica  is  the  highest  peak  of  the  chain,  exceeding  5,000 
feet. 

Martinique,  the  next  in  the  chain,  calls  for  no  description  here, 
the  following  chapter  being  devoted  to  it.  In  Martinique  and  St. 
Lucia,  but  not  in  Dominica,  next  north  of  Martinique,  is  found  that 
terribly  venomous  serpent,  the  "  fer  de  lance,"  which  is  evil  enough 
to  have  been  the  product  of  the  particular  Vulcan  that  forged  the 
thunderbolts  cast  by  Pelee  at  the  devoted  city  of  St.  Pierre.    More 


38  THE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  REGIONS 

than  one  of  those  who  escaped  from  the  flames  may  have  met 
death  from  the  poison  fangs  of  this  serpent  as  they  sought  succor 
after  the  eruption  or  groped  their  way  bHndly  through  the  suffocat- 
ing fumes  and  ashes  to  a  place  of  safety. 

THE    ISLAND    OF    ST.    LUCIA 

Saint  Lucia  is  but  another  Martinique  on  a  smaller  scale.  It 
has  a  "Soufriere,"  or  sulphur  mine,  larger  than  that  in  the  crater 
of  Mont  Pelee,  but  situated  at,  or  near,  the  southern  end  of  the 
island,  distant  from  the  town  of  Castries,  above  which  latter  frown 
the  fortifications  erected  by  the  British  at  an  expense  of  many  mil- 
lions. Lying  about  midway  between  Martinique  and  Saint  Vincent, 
it  seems  wonderful  to  the  lay  mind  that  Saint  Lucia  should  thus  far 
have  escaped  disaster.  It  is  about  one  hundred  miles  as  the  crow 
flies,  from  Mont  Pelee,  at  the  north  end  of  Martinique,  to 
the  Soufriere,  at  the  north  end  of  Saint  Vincent,  the  erup- 
tion from  which  was  almost  synchronous  with  that  from  the 
former.  There  is  no  town  nearer  the  volcano  than  a  little  set- 
tlement called  Chateau  Belaire,  on  the  leeward  coast,  which  lies 
about  opposite  the  port  of  Georgetown  at  the  windward — as  the 
east  coast  is  called.  From  one  town  to  the  other,  all  the  way  round 
the  north  end  of  the  island,  the  plantations  and  provision  grounds 
have  been  absolutely  wiped  out.  Not  many  of  the  lives  lost  were 
those  of  white  people  in  either  island,  the  majority  being  colored. 

Space  remains  only  for  a  mere  allusion  to  the  southernmost 
island  of  the  Caribbean  chain,  little  Grenada,  which,  with  a  crater 
in  its  central  hills,  and  its  chief  harbor  in  a  crater,  is  in  a  good  sit- 
uation for  some  interesting  developments,  if  volcanic  activity  should 
in  the  future  spread  from  the  two  islands  midway  the  chain  to  its 
two  extremes. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Island  of  Martinique  and  the  City  of  St. 

Pierre. 

SAINT  PIERRE  is  the  principal  city  of  the  French  island  of 
Martinique,  having  a  population  of  over  25,000,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  in  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Situated 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Martinique,  the  town  faces  an 
open  roadstead  sheltered  by  high  mountains  from  the  easterly 
trade  winds,  and  affording  anchorage  for  hundreds  of  vessels.  The 
town  proper  is  built  on  the  slope  of  a  high  range  of  hills  separated 
by  a  valley  and  a  small  stream,  which  have  been  made  into  a  park, 
with  stately  avenues  extending  up  the  valley  to  the  rear  of  the 
town,  where  it  joins  what  is  conceded  to  be  the  handsomest  botani- 
cal garden  in  the  West  Indies. 

Originally  it  was  built  entirely  of  stone.  After  several  earth- 
quakes, which  resulted  in  terrible  loss  of  life,  the  inhabitants  built 
their  houses  of  wood.  Then  the  town  was  fire  swept  and  stone  was 
again  used  as  the  general  building  material.  After  several  earth- 
quakes wood  once  more  was  used,  but  the  place  was  destroyed  by 
fire  again  about  eight  years  ago. 

The  streets  of  the  town,  while  narrow,  are  paved,  with  broad 
gutters  in  the  centre,  down  which  flows  a  steady  stream  of  water 
from  springs  in  the  hills,  keeping  the  streets  in  a  condition  of 
nearly  absolute  cleanliness.  Adjoining  the  city  on  the  north  are 
several  large  sugar  factories,  including  the  Guerin  Works,  one  of 

39 


40  MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 

the  largest  in  the  West  Indies.  A  tramway  connects  the  southern 
portion  of  the  city  with  the  northern,  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  line 
being  the  women  conductors.  The  motive  power  is  mules.  In 
addition  to  the  many  factories  producing  sugar,  rum  and  Florida 
water,  Saint  Pierre  is  the  distributing  point  of  the  French  West 
Indies  and  for  French  Guiana.  Two  handsome  cathedrals, 
the  new  and  the  old,  several  attractive  public  buildings,  and  a 
municipal  opera  house,  which  maintains  a  permanent  opera  com- 
pany, are  among  the  noteworthy  features  of  the  city. 

THE    NATIVES    OF    MARTINIQUE 

The  natives  are  for  the  most  part  negroes.  The  other  natives 
are  of  French  extraction,  and  the  language  of  the  latter  nation  is 
universally  spoken.  The  picturesque  situation  of  the  city,  with  the 
gay  costumes  of  the  natives,  gives  the  place  a  decidedly  operatic 
appearance.     The  climate  is  almost  perfect. 

The  population  of  St.  Pierre  is  like  the  people  of  the  Arabian 
Nights.  European,  negro  and  Indian  combined  to  make  this 
strange  race,  but  the  Indian  seemed  to  predominate.  It  is  many 
colored,  but  the  general,  dominant  tint  is  yellow,  like  that  of  the 
town  of  St.  Pierre  itself.  It  is  a  race  of  half-breeds,  the  finest  mixed 
race  in  the  West  Indies.  Lafcadio  Hearn  says  of  these  people: 
"  Straight  as  palms  and  supple  and  tall,  these  colored  women  and 
men  impress  one  wonderfully  by  their  dignified  carriage  and  easy 
elegance  of  movement.  They  walk  without  swinging  of  the  shoul- 
ders— the  perfectly  set  torso  seems  to  remain  rigid  ;  yet  the  step  is 
a  long,  full  stride,  and  the  whole  weight  is  springingly  poised  on 
the  very  tip  of  the  bare  foot.  All,  or  nearly  all,  are  without  shoes  ; 
the  treading  of  many  feet  over  the  heated  pavement  makes  a  con- 
tinuous, whispering  sound. 


MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 


41 


"  Perhaps  the  most  novel  impression  of  all  is  that  produced  by 
the  singularity  and  brilliancy  of  certain  of  the  women's  costumes, 
especially  their  head-dress.  It  is  merely  an  immense  Madras  hand- 
kerchief, which  is  folded  about  the  head  with  admirable  art,  like  a 
turban — one  bright  end  pushed  through  at  the  top  in  front  being 
left  sticking  up  like  a  plume.  Then  this  turban,  always  full  of  bright 
canary  color,  is  fastened  with  golden  brooches — -one  in  front  and  one 


A  BEAUTIFUL   PARK    IN    ST.   PIERRE 


at  either  side.  As  for  the  remainder  of  the  dress,  it  is  simple  enough  ; 
an  embroidered,  lowcut  chemise  with  sleeves  ;  a  skirt  or  jupe,  very 
long  behind,  but  caught  up  and  fastened  in  front  below  the  breast 
so  as  to  bring  the  hem  everywhere  to  a  level  with  the  end  of  the 
long  chemise,  and  finally  a  foulard  or  silken  kerchief  thrown  over 
the  shoulders.     These  jupes  and  foulards,  however,  are  exquisite  in 


42  MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 

pattern  and  color  ;  bright  crimson,  bright  yellow,  bright  blue,  bright 
green — lilac,  violet,  rose — sometimes  mingled  in  plaidings  or  check- 
erings  or  stripings,  black  with  orange,  sky-blue  with  purple. 

"  But  few  are  thus  attired.  The  greater  number  of  the  women 
carrying  burdens  on  their  heads— peddling  vegetables,  cakes,  fruit, 
ready-cooked  food  from  door  to  door — are  very  simply  dressed  in  a 
single  plain  robe  of  vivid  colors  reaching  from  neck  to  feet,  and 
made  with  a  train,  but  generally  girded  well  up  so  as  to  sit  close  to 
the  figure  and  leave  the  lower  limbs  partly  bare  and  perfectly  free. 
These  women  can  walk  all  day  long  up  and  down  hill  in  the  hot 
sun,  without  shoes,  carrying  loads  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  on  their  heads,  and  if  their  little  stock  some- 
times fails  to  come  up  to  the  accustomed  weight  stones  are  added 
to  make  It  heavy  enough.  And  the  Creole  street  cries,  uttered  in  a 
sonorous,  far-reaching  high  key,  interblend  and  produce  random 
harmonies  very  pleasing  to  hear." 

The  people  of  Martinique  are  very  poor,  although  outwardly 
their  houses  and  shops  give  an  impression  of  wealth.  The  build- 
ings are  very  pretty,  are  in  colors  red,  white  and  blue,  and  are  kept 
up  very  well.  Inside  the  shops  the  displays  appear  to  be  quite  lav- 
ish, but  there  are  few  moneyed  purchasers.  The  credit  system  pre- 
vails almost  exclusively.  The  majority  of  the  people — who  are  black, 
of  course — live  on  next  to  nothing.  Four  pence  (eight  cents)  a  day 
is  the  usual  wage  for  labor,  and  is  about  as  much  as  the  employers 
can  afford  to  pay.  The  laborers  work  very  hard  for  the  small  wage. 
As  in  most  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  the  women  greatly  outnum- 
ber the  men,  and  do  the  brunt  of  the  manual  labor. 

We  have  spoken,  as  the  reader  will  perceive,  in  the  present 
tense,  as  though  St.  Pierre  were  a  thing  of  the  present,  and  its  in- 
habitants living  and  breathing  men  and  women.    But  in  truth  these 


MAP  OF  THE  ISLAND  OF  MARTINIQUE,  SHOWING  ST.  PIERRE.  MT.  PELEE,  AND  OTHER 

POINTS  OF  INTEREST 

43 


44  MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 

people,  with  few  exceptions,  have  ceased  to  live,  and  their  former 
place  of  habitation  is  a  city  of  the  past,  a  Pompeii  of  the  West  Indies. 

LIFE    AND     MANNERS    IN     ST.    PIERRE. 

Merchants  and  ship  captains  who  know  the  Windward  Islands 
cannot  conceive  of  the  gay  little  port  of  St.  Pierre  de  Martinique 
being  covered  with  ashes  and  lava.  As  do  all  the  colonial  capitals  of 
the  French,  St.  Pierre  followed  as  closely  as  the  steamers  and  mails 
would  permit  the  customs  and  fashions  of  Paris.  At  the  Hotel 
des  Bains,  at  the  "absinthe  hour,"  one  might  always  find  a  gather- 
ing of  young  men  of  the  town,  who  sat  sipping  their  liqueurs  and 
chatting  gaily. 

The  Rue  de  Victor  Hugo  was  the  principal  thoroughfare.  All 
of  the  best  shops  were  located  on  it,  and  it  served  as  a  parade  for 
the  fashionables  when  they  made  their  appearance  in  the  cool  of  the 
evening,  arrayed  in  their  white  ducks,  Panama  hats,  and  low-cut 
patent  leather  shoes,  and  the  women  either  in  the  year-old  fashions 
of  Paris  or  in  the  striking,  gaily  colored  native  garb. 

The  Cathedral,  the  Opera  House  (where  traveling  companies 
played  before  enthusiastic  audiences),  the  Hotel  des  Bains  and  the 
banks  were  probably  the  largest  and  best  built  buildings  in  the 
town.  French  was  the  common  language,  and  nearly  all  of  the 
white  people  were  of  French  extraction.  It  was  a  lively  little 
place,  and  its  people  had  some  of  the  light  spirit  and  gaiety  of  their 
Gallic  kinsmen.  Always  on  coming  into  the  harbor  passengers 
noted  the  apparent  freshness  and  cleanliness  of  the  place.  The 
white  houses,  with  their  green  blinds  and  tiled  or  thatched  roofs, 
the  gay  striped  awnings  and  vivid  green  of  the  background,  made 
a  cool,  pleasant  picture.  Ashore,  the  bright  costumes  of  the  native 
girls,  the  movement  of  thestreet  life  and  the  strangeness  of  the  new 
scenes  were  a  source  of  constant  interest  to  tourists. 


MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE  45 

The  upper  or  new  town  was  the  most  attractive  part  of  the 
place.  The  streets  were  broader  and  cleaner,  and  the  buildings  of 
a  better  quality.  All  of  the  streets  were  narrow,  even  the  Rue  de 
Victor  Hugo  being  scarcely  wide  enough  to  permit  two  carriages 
to  pass  abreast. 

Through  every  street,  as  above  said,  ran  an  open  gutter  of 
water,  and  early  in  the  morning,  just  when  the  cool  dawn  wind  was 
cominor  down  from  the  mountains,  these  gutters  would  be  alive  with 
people.  The  native  women  would  bring  out  their  tall  earthen  jars, 
called  "Welsh  hats"  by  the  resident  Englishmen,  to  be  filled  with 
the  cool,  flowing  water.  Babies  were  brought  out  and  allowed  to 
disport  themselves,  while  their  mothers  cleansed  the  household 
utensils.  The  streams  being  fed  from  mountain  lakes,  cleanliness 
in  dress  and  habitation  was  common,  even  among  the  lowest  classes. 

Back  from  St.  Pierre  about  eight  miles,  on  a  winding  mountain 
road,  was  the  fashionable  native  resort,  Morne  Rouge.  Here  the 
rich  residents  had  their  country  homes.  In  the  season,  which  began 
about  June  i,  there  were  usually  4,000  or  5,000  persons  at  Morne 
Rouge.  Probably  half  that  number  had  gone  out  this  year  to  open 
their  villas. 

SITUATION    OF    THE    CITY 

There  were  no  wharves  or  quays  at  St.  Pierre,  and  really  no 
harbor — simply  an  open  roadstead  with  deep  water  inshore.  The 
island  rises  sheerly  from  the  sea,  and  there  was  no  anchorage  until 
the  ships  got  within  300  feet  of  the  buildings  on  shore.  Skip- 
pers of  sailing  vessels  would  take  their  ships  close  in  and  anchor 
with  bows  pointed  seaward  and  with  a  stern  line  out  to  steady  the 
craft.  They  had  to  be  alert  during  the  rainy  or  stormy  season,  be- 
cause of  their  exposed  condition,  and  be  ready  to  slip  anchors  and 
run  out  to  sea. 


46  MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 

Where  St.  Pierre  was,  the  coast  line  curves  inland  like  a  slightly- 
bent  bow.  Describing  it,  one  of  the  shopkeepers  on  the  Rue  de 
Victor  Hugo  used  to  say  that  the  town  was  situated  on  a  bay 
shaped  "  like  a  dilemma,  with  a  volcano  on  one  horn  and  a  tropical 
jungle  on  the  other."  He  had  got  the  phrase  from  an  English  corres- 
pondent, who  had  wondered  what  the  inhabitants  would  do  if  such 
a  calamity  as  the  present  one  ever  occurred.  The  Englishman  had 
noted  the  lack  of  roads  leading  from  the  town  and  the  futility  of 
any  hope  of  escape. 

The  town  was  built  on  the  flat,  narrow  foreshore  that  lay  be- 
tween the  foot  of  the  steep  wooded  mountains  and  the  sea.  The 
houses  and  shops  were  built  down  to  the  water's  edge  and  clustered 
in  irregular  groups  about  the  Cathedral,  which  was  situated  directly 
opposite  where  the  ships  lay  in  the  roadstead,  and  was  the  promi- 
nent architectural  feature  of  the  town.  It  was  built  of  a  whitish 
stone,  and  with  its  two  towers,  in  which  bells  were  hung,  was 
sharply  accentuated  against  the  green  background  of  the  moun 
tains.  The  water  front  of  the  town  extended  for  nearly  two  miles 
along  the  gently  curving  coast.  All  the  space  back  to  the  hills  that 
shut  in  the  town  was  filled  with  the  low  white  houses  of  the  people. 
Some  twenty  or  twenty-five  streets  ran  down  from  the  hills  to  the 
water  front.     These  were  cut  by  irregular  cross-streets. 

There  were  a  great  many  Americans  in  business  in  St.  Pierre. 
The  business  of  the  island  seemed  to  be  about  equally  divided  be- 
tween French  and  American  merchants.  There  were  very  few 
Englishmen  on  the  island.  The  whites  were  practically  all  Ameri- 
cans and  French.  During  the  Winter  there  have  been  thousands  of 
American  tourists  on  the  island.  It  was  a  delightful  place  to  spend 
a  few  weeks;  the  climate  always  was  superb,  and  everything  about 
the  place  was  sure  to  charm  the  visitor. 


MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE  -  47 

Martinique,  the  island  of  which  St.  Pierre  was  the  commercial 
city,  is  the  longest  and  most  northerly  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
which  form  a  portion  of  the  chain  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  It  is 
placed  about  the  middle  of  the  series  which  stretches  in  a  curved 
line  from  Porto  Rico  almost  to  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  It  is  situ- 
ated almost  midway  between  Dominica  and  St.  Lucia,  twenty  miles 
north  of  the  latter  place,  and  is  about  forty-five  miles  long  and  from 
ten  to  fifteen  miles  wide.  Extensive  masses  of  volcanic  rocks  cover 
the  interior  of  the  island,  in  which  there  are  six  extinct  volcanoes, 
in  addition  to  the  active  Mont  Pelee,  which  has  just  shown  itself 
the  reverse  of  extinct.  Only  about  two-fifths  of  the  island  is  under 
cultivation,  but  the  land  is  of  extraordinary  fertility,  producing 
great  quantities  of  sugar,  coffee  and  cocoa. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    ISLAND 

The  island,  which  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1493, 
was  settled  by  the  French  in  1635,  captured  by  the  British  in  1794 
and  again  in  1809,  but  restored  to  France  for  the  second  time  in 
18 14.     The  population  is  160,000,  mostly  colored. 

Due  in  part  to  the  bounty  system  of  the  French  Government, 
Martinique  and  Guadeloupe  are  prosperous  and  contented,  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  now  poor  and  needy  British  islands  adjoining.  This 
condition  is  so  apparent  that  even  the  casual  visitor  cannot  fail  to 
notice  the  difference.  The  native  population  is  also  more  sprightly 
and  more  gaudily  dressed  than  the  negroes  of  the  adjoining  islands 
of  St.  Lucia,  Dominica  and  particularly  Antigua,  yet  the  sugar  trade, 
which  is  practically  the  only  commercial  industry  of  the  Island  of 
Martinique,  has  not  been  profitable  of  late  years,  and  the  future  of 
both  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe,  even  before  the  eruption  of 
Mont  Pelee,  was  very  gloomy.       The  French  Government,  it  is 


48  MARTINIQUE  AND  ST.  PIERRE 

said,  intends  to  remove  the  bounty  from  sugar,  and  without  this 
bounty  the  industry  cannot  Hve,  and  without  the  industry  the  people 
of  the  island  cannot  very  well  subsist. 

Martinique  is  probably  best  known  as  having  been  the  birth- 
place of  the  unfortunate  Empress  Josephine,  in  whose  honor  a 
handsome  statue  has  been  erected  at  Fort  de  France,  a  seaport  on 
the  east  coast,  the  centre  of  an  important  coal  trade,  numerous  and 
regular  shipments  of  coal  being  made  from  this  port. 

Fort  de  France  was  originally  known  as  Port  Royal,  this  being 

changed  on  the  advent  of   Republican  rule.      Two  rivers  border  it, 

while  the  hills  recede   farther  from   the  shore   than  at  St.  Pierre. 

Trees    are    scarce    save    in   the  park,   where  are  long  and  thickly 

planted   rows   of  tamarinds  and   mangoes,  a  double   line  of  them 

enclosing  a  large  open  space,  covered  with  luxuriant  grass.      In  the 

centre  of  this  space  stands  the  statue  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the 

queenly  Josephine,  a  figure  of  majestic  poise  and  graceful  outline, 

its  material  the  purest  white  marble.      Surrounding  it  is  a  circle  of 

magnificent  palms,  whose  glorious  crowns  rival  that    which   adorns 

the  head  of  the  Empress,  whose  left  hand  rests  on  a  medallion  of 

Napoleon.       On    the    pedestal    a    bas    relief  in  bronze  represents 

Napoleon    before    Josephine  and  in  the    act   of  placing  a  crown 

upon  her  head. 

Near    the    southern    end    of    Martinique  the  island  is   nearly 

divided  in  two  by  a  deep  bay.  On  the  northern  side  of  this  stands 
Fort  de  France,  and  directly  south  of  it  lies  the  little  town  of 
Trois-Ilets,  hidden  from  view  by  a  deep  cape.  In  the  vicinity  of 
this  small  place  is  the  plantation  of  La  Pagerie,  the  birthplace  of 
the  child  who  was  to  become  the  Empress  of  France.  It  is  a  place 
which  all  tourists  to  the  island  visit.  In  its  present  state  the  dwell- 
ing is  not  of  attractive  aspect,  it  being  a  low  wooden-house,  with 


Martinique  and  st.  Pierre  49 

a  roof  of  tiles,  the  whole  old  and  dilapidated,  while  over  the  door 
is  the  common  shop  sign  Debit  de  la  Ferine,  showing  that  rum  and 
salt-fish  are  here  on  sale.  This,  however,  the  visitor  soon  learns,  is 
not  the  house  in  which  was  born  the  future  Empress,  but  its  suc- 
cessor, the  original  house  having  been  destroyed  by  a  hurricane 
shortly  after  her  birth.  But  the  materials  of  which  it  is  constructed 
came  from  the  birth-place  of  Josephine.  Of  the  buildings  of  her 
period  there  remain  only  the  old  kitchen  and  the  sugar  house  of 
the  estate. 

Another  native  of  Martinique  to  whom  some  degree  of  nota- 
bility attaches,  was  Alexandre  de  Beauharnais,  the  first  husband  of 
the  future  bride  of  Napoleon  and  Empress  of  France.  He  was  one 
of  the  victims  of  the  Revolution,  but  his  son,  Eugene  de  Beau- 
harnais, rose  high  in  the  favor  of  Napoleon,  was  made  a  prince 
and  viceroy  of  Italy,  and  in  1812  commanded  a  corps  of  the  grand 
army. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Mont  Pelee  and  its  Harvest  of  Death. 

THE  city  of  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  lies  along  the  coast  of  its 
bay,  for  a  length  of  about  a  mile,  with  high  cliffs  hemming 
it  in,  the  houses  of  stone  and  brick,  covered  with  brown 
earthen  tiles,  climb  up  to  the  hills,  tier  upon  tier.  At  one  place, 
where  a  river  breaks  through  the  cliffs,  the  city  creeps  further  up 
towards  the  mountains.  As  seen  from  the  bay,  its  appearance  is 
picturesque  and  charming,  with  the  soft  tints  of  its  tiles,  the  grey  of 
its  walls,  the  clumps  of  verdure  in  its  midst,  and  the  wall  of  green 
in  the  rear.  Seen  from  its  streets  this  beauty  disappears,  and  the 
chief  attraction  of  the  town  is  gone. 

Back  from  the  three  miles  of  hills  which  sweep  in  an  arc 
round  the  town,  is  ^he  noble  Montague  1  elee  lying  several  miles  to 
the  north  of  the  city,  a  mass  of  dark  rock  some  four  thousand  feet 
high,  with  jagged  outline,  and  cleft  with  gorges  and  ravines,  down 
which  flow  numerous  streams,  gushing  from  the  crater  lake  of  the 
great  volcano. 

Though  known  to  be  a  volcano,  it  was  looked  upon  as  practi- 
cally extinct,  though  as  late  as  August,  1856,  it  had  been  in  eruption. 
No  lava  at  that  time  came  from  its  crater,  but  it  hurled  out  great 
quantities  of  ashes  and  mud,  with  strong  sulphurous  odor.  Then  it 
went  to  rest  again,  and  slept  till  1902. 

The  people  had  long  ceased  to  fear  it.  No  one  expected  that 
grand  old  Mont  Pelee,  the  slumbering  (so  it  was  thought), 
50 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  51 

tranquil  old  hill,  would  ever  spurt  forth  fire  and  death.  This  was 
entirely  unlocked  for.  Mont  Pelee  was  regarded  by  the  natives  as 
a  sort  of  protector  ;  they  had  an  almost  superstitious  affection  for  it. 
From  the  outskirts  of  the  city  it  rose  gradually,  its  sides  grown 
thick  with  rich  grass,  and  dotted  here  and  there  with  spreading 
shrubbery  and  drooping  trees.  There  was  no  pleasanter  outing  for 
an  afternoon  than  a  journey  up  the  green,  velvet-like  sides  of  the 
towering  mountain  and  a  view  of  the  quaint,  picturesque  city  slum- 
bering at  its  base. 

A    PEACEFUL    SCENE 

There  were  no  rocky  cliffs,  no  crags,  no  protruding  boulders. 
The  mountain  was  peace  itself,  It  seemed  to  promise  perpetual 
protection.  The  poetic  natives  relied  upon  it  to  keep  back  storms 
from  the  land  and  frighten,  with  its  stern  brow,  the  tempests  from 
the  sea.  They  pointed  to  it  with  profoundest  pride  as  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  mountains  in  the  world. 

Children  played  in  its  bowers  and  arbors  ;  families  picnicked 
there  day  after  day  during  the  balmy  weather ;  hundreds  of  tour- 
ists ascended  to  the  summit  and  looked  with  pleasure  at  the  beauti- 
ful crystal  lake  which  sparkled  and  glinted  in  the  sunshine.  Mont 
Pelee  was  the  place  of  enjoyment  of  the  people  of  St.  Pierre.  I 
can  hear  the  placid  natives  say  :  '*  Old  Father  Pelee  is  our  protec- 
tor— not  our  destroyer." 

Not  until  two  weeks  before  the  eruption  ;  did  the  slumbering 
mountain  show  signs  of  waking  to  death  and  disaster.  On  the  23d 
of  April  it  first  displayed  symptoms  of  internal  disquiet,  A 
great  column  of  smoke  began  to  rise  from  it,  and  was  accompanied 
from  time  to  time  by  showers  of  ashes  and  cinders. 

Despite  these  signals,  there  was  nothing  until  Monday,  May 
5th,  to  indicate  actual  danger.     On  that  day  a  stream  of  smoking 


52  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

mud  and  lava  burst  through  the  top  of  the  crater  and  plunged  into 
the  valley  of  the  River  Blanche,  overwhelming  the  Guerin  sugar 
works  and  killing  twenty-three  workmen  and  the  son  of  the  proprie- 
tor. Mr.  Guerin's  was  one  of  the  largest  sugar  works  on  the  island  ; 
its  destruction  entailed  a  heavy  loss.  The  mud  which  overwhelmed  it 
follov/ed  the  beds  of  streams  towards  the  north  of  the  island. 

The  alarm  in  the  city  was  great,  but  it  was  somewhat  allayed 
by  the  report  of  an  expert  commission  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
which  decided  that  the  eruption  was  normal  and  that  the  city  was 
in  no  peril.  To  further  allay  the  excitement,  the  Governor,  with, 
several  scientists,  took  up  his  residence  in  St.  Pierre.  He  could 
not  restrain  the  people  by  force,  but  the  moral  effect  of  his  pre- 
sence and  the  decision  of  the  scientists  had  a  similar  disastrous 
result. 

A    GRAPHIC    DESCRIPTION    BY    A    SUFFERER. 

The  existing  state  of  affairs  during  these  few  waiting  days  is 
so  graphically  given  in  a  letter  from  Mrs.  Thomas  T.  Prentis,  wife 
of  the  United  States  Consul  at  St.  Pierre,  to  her  sister  in  Melrose, 
a  suburban  city  of  Boston,  that  we  quote  it  here  : 

''My  Dear  Sister :  This  morning  the  whole  population  of  the 
city  is  on  the  alert  and  every  eye  is  directed  toward  Mont  Pelee, 
an  extinct  volcano.  Everybody  is  afraid  that  the  volcano  has  taken 
into  its  heart  to  burst  forth  and  destroy  the  whole  island. 

"  Fifty  years  ago  Mont  Pelee  burst  forth  with  terrific  force  and 
destroyed  everything  within  a  radius  of  several  miles.  For  several 
days  the  mountain  has  been  bursting  forth  in  flame  and  immense 
quantities  of  lava  are  flowing  down  its  sides. 

"All  the  inhabitants  are  going  up  to  see  it.  There  is  not  a 
horse  to  be  had  on  the  island,  those  belonging  to  the  natives  being 
kept  in  readiness  to  leave  at  a  moment's  notice. 


MONl  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 


53 


"  Last  Wednesday,  which  was  April  23rd,  I  was  in  my  room 
with  Httle  Christine,  and  we  heard  three  distinct  shocks.  They 
were  so  great  that  we  supposed  at  first  that  there  was  some  one  at 
the  door,  and  Christine  went  and  found  no  one  there.  The  first 
report  was  very  loud,  and  the  second  and  third  were  so  great  that 
dishes  were  thrown  from  the  shelves  and  the  house  was  rocked. 


INTERIOR  OF  A  HOME  IN  ST.  PIERRE 


"We  can  see  Mont  Pelee  from  the  rear  windows  of  our  house, 
and  although  it  is  fully  four  miles  away,  we  can  hear  the  roar  of 
the  fire  and  lava  issuing  from  it. 

"  The  city  is  covered  with  ashes  and  clouds  of  smoke  have 
been  over  our  heads  for  the  last  five  days.  The  smell  of  sulphur  is 
so  strong  that  horses  on  the  streets  stop  and  snort,  and  some  of 
them  are  obliged  to  give  up,  drop  in  their  harness  and  die  from 
suffocation.  Many  of  the  people  are  obliged  to  wear  wet  handker- 
chiefs over  their  faces  to  protect  them  from  the  fumes  of  sulphur. 


54  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

"  My  husband  assures  me  that  there  is  no  immediate  danger, 
and  when  there  is  the  least  particle  of  danger  we  will  leave  the 
place.  There  is  an  American  schooner,  the  R.  J.  Mo7^se,  in  the 
harbor,  and  she  will  remain  here  for  at  least  two  weeks.  If  the 
volcano  becomes  very  bad  we  shall  embark  at  once  and  go  out  to 
sea.  The  papers  in  this  city  are  asking  if  we  are  going  to  experi- 
ence another  earthquake  similar  to  that  which  struck  here  some  fifty 
years  ago." 

THE    FATEFUL    EIGHTH    OF    MAY 

The  writer  of  this  letter  and  her  husband,  Consul  Prentis, 
trusted  Mont  Pelee  too  long.  They  perished,  with  all  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city,  in  a  deadly  flood  of  fire  and  ashes  that  descended 
on  the  devoted  place  on  the  fateful  morning  of  Thursday,  May 
8th.  Only  for  the  few  who  were  rescued  from  the  ships  in  the 
harbor  there  would  be  scarcely  a  living  soul  to  tell  that  dread  story 
of  ruin  and  death.  The  most  graphic  accounts  are  those  given  by 
rescued  officers  of  the  Roraima,  one  of  the  fleet  of  the  Quebec 
Steamship  Co.,  trading  with  the  West  Indies.  This  vessel  had  left 
the  Island  of  Dominica  for  Martinique  at  midnight  of  Wednesday, 
and  reached  St.  Pierre  about  7  o'clock  Thursday  morning.  The 
greatest  difficulty  was  experienced  in  getting  into  port,  the  air 
being  thick  with  falling  ashes  and  the  darkness  intense.  The  ship 
had  to  grope  its  way  to  the  anchorage.  Appalling  sounds  were 
issuing  from  the  mountain  behind  the  town,  which  was  shrouded 
in  darkness.  The  ashes  were  falling  thickly  on  the  steamer's  deck, 
where  the  passengers  and  others  were  gazing  at  the  town,  some 
being  engaged  in  photographing  the  scene. 

The  best  way  in  which  we  can  describe  a  scene  of  which  few 
lived  to  tell  the  story,  is  to  give  the  narratives  of  a  number  of  the 
gurvivors.      From  their  several  stories  a  coherent  idea  of  the  terrible 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  55 

scene  can  be  formed.  From  the  various  accounts  oiven  of  the  ter- 
rible  explosion  by  officers  of  the  Roraima,  \vc  select  as  a  first 
example  the  following  description  by  Assistant  Purser   Thompson  : 

A    TALE    OF    SUDDEN    RUIN 

"  I  saw  St.  Pierre  destroyed.  It  was  blotted  out  by  one  great 
flash  of  fire.  Nearly  40,000  persons  were  all  killed  at  once.  Out 
of  eighteen  vessels  lying  in  the  roads  only  one,  the  British  steam- 
ship Roddam,  escaped,  and  she,  I  hear,  lost  more  than  half  on 
board.      It  was  a  dying  crew  that  took  her  out. 

"  Our  boat,  the  Roraima,  of  the  Quebec  Line,  arrived  at  St. 
Pierre  early  Thursday  morning.  For  hours  before  we  entered  the 
roadstead  we  could  see  flames  and  smoke  rising  from  Mont  Pelee. 
No  one  on  board  had  any  idea  of  danger.  Captain  G.  T.  Muggah 
was  on  the  brido^e,  and  all  hands  gfot  on  deck  to  see  the  show. 

"The  spectacle  was  magnificent.  /\s  we  approached  vSt. 
Pierre  we  could  distinguish  the  rolling  and  leaping  of  the  red 
flames  that  belched  from  the  mountain  in  huge  volumes  and  gushed 
high  into  the  sky.  Enormous  clouds  of  black  smoke  hung  over  the 
volcano. 

**  When  we  anchored  at  St.  Pierre  I  noticed  the  cable  steam- 
ship Grappler,  the  Roddam,  three  or  four  American  schooners  and 
a  number  of  Italian  and  Norwegian  barks.  The  flames  were  then 
spurting  straight  up  in  the  air,  now  and  then  waving  to  one  side  or 
the  other  for  a  moment  and  again  leaping  suddenly  higher  up. 

"There  was  a  constant  muffled  roar.  It  was  like  the  biggest 
oil  refinery  in  the  world  burning  up  on  the  mountain  top.  There 
was  a  tremendous  explosion  about  7.45  o'clock,  soon  after  we  got 
in.  The  mountain  was  blown  to  pieces.  There  was  no  warn- 
ing.    The  side  of  the  volcano  was  ripped  out,  and  there  was  hurled 


56  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

straight  toward  us  a  solid  wall  of  flame.  It  sounded  like  thousands 
of  cannon. 

"  The  wave  of  fire  was  on  us  and  over  us  like  a  lightning 
flash.  It  was  like  a  hurricane  of  fire.  I  saw  it  strike  the  cable 
steamship  Grappler  broadside  on  and  capsize  her.  From  end  to 
end  she  burst  into  flames  and  then  sank.  The  fire  rolled  in  mass 
straight  down  upon  St.  Pierre  and  the  shipping.  The  town  van- 
ished before  our  eyes  and  the  air  grew  stifling  hot,  and  we  were  in 
the  thick  of  it. 

"  Wherever  the  mass  of  fire  struck  the  sea  the  water  boiled 
and  sent  up  vast  clouds  of  steam.  The  sea  was  torn  into  huge 
whirlpools  that  careened  toward  the  open  sea. 

"  One  of  these  horrible  hot  whirlpools  swung  under  the  Ror- 
auna  and  pulled  her  down  on  her  beam  ends  with  the  suction.  She 
careened  way  over  to  port,  and  then  the  fire  hurricane  from  the 
volcano  smashed  her,  and  over  she  went  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
fire  wave  swept  off  the  masts  and  smokestack  as  if  they  were  cut 
with  a  knife. 

HEAT    CAUSED    EXPLOSIONS 

"  Captain  Muggah  was  the  only  one  on  deck  not  killed  out- 
right. He  was  caught  by  the  fire  wave  and  terribly  burned.  He 
yelled  to  get  up  the  anchor,  but,  before  two  fathoms  were  heaved  in 
the  Roraima  was  almost  upset  by  the  boiling  whirlpool,  and  the  fire 
wave  had  thrown  her  down  on  her  beam  ends  to  starboard.  Cap- 
tain Muggah  was  overcome  by  the  flames.  He  fell  unconscious 
from  the  bridge  and  toppled  overboard. 

"  The  blast  of  fire  from  the  volcano  lasted  only  a  few  minutes. 
It  shriveled  and  set  fire  to  everything  it  touched.  Thousands  of 
casks  of  rum  were  stored  in  St.  Pierre,  and  these  were  exploded  by 
the  terrific  heat.     The  burning  rum  ran  in  streams  down  every  street 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  57 

and  out  to  the  sea.  This  blazing  rum  set  fire  to  the  Roraima  several 
times.  Before  the  volcano  burst  the  landings  of  St.  Pierre  were 
crowded  with  people.  After  the  explosion  not  one  living  being  was 
seen  on  land.  Only  twenty-five  of  those  on  the  Roraima  out  of 
sixty-eight  were  left  after  the  first  flash. 

"The  French  cruiser  Suchet  came  in  and  took  us  off  at  2 
p.  M.  She  remained  nearby,  helping  all  she  could,  until  5  o'clock, 
then  went  to  Fort  de  France  with  all  the  people  she  had  rescued. 
At  that  time  it  looked  as  if  the  entire  north  end  of  the  island  was 
on  fire." 

C.  C.  Evans,  of  Montreal,  and  John  G.  Morris,  of  New  York, 
who  were  among  those  rescued,  say  the  vessel  arrived  at  6  o'clock. 
As  eight  bells  were  struck  a  frightful  explosion  was  heard  up  the 
mountain.  A  cloud  of  fire,  toppling  and  roaring,  swept  with  light- 
ning speed  down  the  mountain  side  and  over  the  town  and  bay. 
The  Roraima  was  nearly  sunk,  and  caught  fire  at  once. 

"  I  can  never  forget  the  horrid,  fiery,  choking  whirlwind  which 
enveloped  me,"  said  Mr.  Evans.  "  Mr.  Morris  and  I  rushed  below. 
We  are  not  very  badly  burned,  not  so  bad  as  most  of  them. 
When  the  fire  came  we  were  going  to  our  posts  (we  are  engmeers) 
to  weigh  anchor  and  get  out.  When  we  came  up  we  found  the 
ship  afire  aft,  and  fought  it  forward  until  3  o'clock,  when  the 
Suchet  came  to  our  rescue.      We  were  then  building  a  raft." 

"  Ben  "  Benson,  the  carpenter  of  the  Roraima,  said  :  "  I  was 
on  deck,  amidships,  when  I  heard  an  explosion.  The  captain  or- 
dered me  to  up  anchor.  I  got  to  the  windlass,  but  when  the  fire 
came  I  went  into  the  forecastle  and  got  my  'duds.'  When  I  came 
out  I  talked  with  Captain  Muggah,  Mr.  Scott,  the  first  ofificer  and 
others.  They  had  been  on  the  bridge.  The  captain  was  horribly 
burned.     He  had  inhaled  flames  and  wanted  to  jump  into  the  sea. 


58  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

I  tried  to  make  him  take  a  life-preserver.  The  captain,  who  was 
undressed,  jumped  overboard  and  hung  on  to  a  Hne  for  a  while. 
Then  he  disappeared." 

THE    cooper's    story. 

James  Taylor,  a  cooper  employed  on  the  Roraima,  gives  the 
following  account  of  his  experience  of  the  disaster  : 

"Hearing  a  tremendous  report  and  seeing  the  ashes  falling 
thicker,  I  dived  into- a  room,  dragging  with  me  Samuel  Thomas,  a 
gangway  man  and  fellow  countryman,  shutting  the  door  tightly. 
Shortly  after  I  heard  a  voice,  which  I  recognized  as  that  of  the 
chief  mate,  Mr.  Scott.  Opening  the  door  with  great  caution, 
I  drew  him  in.   The  nose  of  Thomas  was  burned  by  the  intense  heat. 

"  We  three  and  Thompson,  the  assistant  purser,  out  of  sixty- 
eight  souls  on  board,  were  the  only  persons  who  escaped  practically 
uninjured.  The  heat  being  unbearable,  I  emerged  in  a  few 
moments,  and  the  scene  that  presented  itself  to  my  eyes  baffles  de- 
scription. All  around  on  the  deck  were  the  dead  and  dying  cov- 
ered with  boiling  mud.  There  they  lay,  men,  women  and  little 
children,  and  the  appeals  of  the  latter  for  water  were  heart-rending. 
When  water  was  given  them  they  could  not  swallow  it,  owing 
to  their  throats  beine  filled  with  ashes  or  burnt  with  the  heated  air. 

"  The  ship  was  burning  aft,  and  I  jumped  overboard,  the 
sea  being  intensely  hot,  I  was  at  once  swept  seaward  by  a  tidal 
wave,  but,  the  sea  receding  a  considerable  distance,  the  return 
wave  washed  me  against  an  upturned  sloop  to  which  I  clung.  I 
was  joined  by  a  man  so  dreadfully  burned  and  disfigured  as  to 
be  unrecognizable.  Afterwards  I  found  he  was  the  captain  of  the 
Roraima,  Captain  Muggah.  He  was  in  dreadful  agony,  begging 
piteously  to  be  put  on  board  his  ship. 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  59 

"  Picking  up  some  wreckage  which  contained  bedding  and 
a  tool  chest,  I,  with  the  help  of  five  others  who  had  joined  me 
on  the  wreck,  constructed  a  rude  raft,  on  which  we  placed  the  cap- 
tain. Then,  seeing  an  upturned  boat,  I  asked  one  of  the  five,  a 
native  of  Martinique,  to  swim  and  fetch  it.  Instead  of  returning  to 
us,  he  picked  up  two  of  his  countrymen  and  went  away  in  the  di- 
rection of  Fort  de  France.  Seeing  the  Roddam,  which  arrived  in 
port  shortly  after  we  anchored,  making  for  the  Roraima,  I  said 
good-bye  to  the  captain  and  swam  back  to  the  Roraima. 

"The  Roddam,  however,  burst  into  flames  and  put  to  sea.  I 
reached  the  Roramia  at  about  half-past  2,  and  was  afterwards  taken 
off  by  a  boat  from  the  French  warship  Suchet.  Twenty-four  others 
with  myself  were  taken  on  to  Fort  de  France.  Three  of  these 
died  before  reaching  port.     A  number  of  others  have  since  died." 

Samuel  Thomas,  the  gangway  man,  whose  life  was  saved  by 
the  forethought  of  Taylor,  says  that  the  scene  on  the  burning  ship 
was  awful.  The  groans  and  cries  of  the  dying,  for  whom  nothing 
could  be  done,  were  horrible.  He  describes  a  woman  as  being 
burned  to  death  with  a  living  babe  in  her  arms.  He  says  that  it 
seemed  as  if  the  whole  world  was  afire. 

CONSUL    AYMe's    statement 

The  inflammable  material  in  the  forepart  of  the  ship  that 
would  have  ignited  that  part  of  the  vessel  was  thrown  overboard 
by  him  and  the  other  two  uninjured  men.  The  Grappler,  the 
telegraph  company's  ship,  was  seen  opposite  the  Usine  Guerin, 
and  disappeared  as  if  blown  up  by  a  submarine  explosion.  The 
captain's  body  was  subsequently  found  by  a  boat  from  the  Suchet. 

Consul  Ayme,  of  Guadeloupe,  who,  as  already  stated,  had 
hastened  to  Fort  de  France  on  hearing  of  the  terrible  event,  tells 
the  story  of  the  disaster  in  the  following  words  : 


6o  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

"  Thursday  morning  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  awoke  to  find 
heavy  clouds  shrouding  Mont  Pelee  crater.  All  day  Wednesday 
horrid  detonations  had  been  heard.  These  were  echoed  from  St. 
Thomas  on  the  north  to  Barbados  on  the  south.  The  cannonad- 
ing ceased  on  Wednesday  night,  and  fine  ashes  fell  like  rain  on 
St.  Pierre.  The  inhabitants  were  alarmed,  but  Governor  Mouttet, 
who  had  arrived  at  St.  Pierre  the  evening  before,  did  everything 
possible  to  allay  the  panic. 

"  The  British  steamer  Rorainia  reached  St.  Pierre  on  Thursday 
with  ten  passengers,  among  whom  were  Mrs.  Stokes  and  her  three 
children,  and  Mrs.  H.  J.  I  nee.  They  were  watching  the  rain  of 
ashes,  when,  with  a  frightful  roar  and  terrific  electric  discharges, 
a  cyclone  of  fire,  mud  and  steam  swept  down  from  the  crater  over 
the  town  and  bay,  sweeping  all  before  it  and  destroying  the  fleet 
of  vessels  at  anchor  off  the  shore.  There  the  accounts  of  the 
catastrophe  so  far  obtainable  cease.  Thirty  thousand  corpses  are 
strewn  about,  buried  in  the  ruins  of  St.  Pierre,  or  else  floating, 
gnawed  by  sharks,  in  the  surrounding  seas.  Twenty-eight  charred, 
half-dead  human  beings  were  brought  here.  Sixteen  of  them  are 
already  dead,  and  only  four  of   the  whole    number  are  expected  to 


recover." 


A    WOMAN  S    EXPERIENCE    ON    THE    "RORAIMA 


Margaret  Stokes,  the  9  year  old  daughter  of  the  late  Clement 
Stokes,  of  New  York,  who,  with  her  mother,  a  brother  aged  4  and 
a  sister  aged  3  years,  was  on  the  ill-fated  steamer  Royaima,  was 
saved  from  that  vessel,  but  is  not  expected  to  live.  Her  nurse, 
Clara  King,  tells  the  following  story  of  her  experience  : 

She  says  she  was  in  her  stateroom,  when  the  steward  of  the 
Roraima  called  out  to  her  : 

"  Look  at  Mont  Pelee." 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  6i 

She  went  on  deck  and  saw  a  vast  mass  of  black  cloud  coming 
down  from  the  volcano.  The  steward  ordered  her  to  return  to  the 
saloon,  saying,   "  It  is  coming." 

Miss  King  then  rushed  to  the  saloon.  She  says  she  experi- 
enced a  feeling  of  suffocation,  which  was  followed  by  intense  heat. 
The  afterpart  of  the  Roraima  broke  out  in  flames.  Ben  Benson, 
the  carpenter  of  the  Roraima,  severely  burned,  assisted  Miss  King 
and  Margaret  Stokes  to  escape.  With  the  help  of  Mr.  Scott,  the 
first  mate  of  the  Roraima,  he  constructed  a  raft,  with  life  preservers. 
Upon  this  Miss  King  and  Margaret  were  placed. 

While  this  was  being  done  Margaret's  little  brother  died. 
Mate  Scott  brought  the  child  water  at  great  personal  danger,  but 
it  was  unavailing.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  the  little  boy  Mrs. 
Stokes  succumbed.  Margaret  and  Miss  King  eventually  got  away 
on  the  raft,  and  were  picked  up  by  the  steamer  Korona.  Mate 
Scott  also  escaped.  Miss  King  did  not  sustain  serious  injuries. 
She  covered  the  face  of  Margaret  with  her  dress,  but  still  the  child 
was  probably  fatally  burned. 

The  only  woman  known  at  that  time  to  have  survived  the  dis- 
aster at  St.  Pierre  was  a  negress  named  Fillotte.  She  was  found 
in  a  cellar  Saturday  afternoon,  where  she  had  been  for  three  days. 
She  was  still  alive,  but  fearfully  burned  from  head  to  toes.  She  died 
afterward  in  the  hospital. 

CAPTAIN    freeman's    THRILLING    ACCOUNT 

Of  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  of  St.  Pierre  on  the  fateful  morn- 
ing, only  one,  the  British  steamer  Roddam,  escaped,  and  that  v/ith 
a  crew  of  whom  few  reached  the  open  sea  alive.  Those  who  did 
escape  were  terribly  injured.  Captain  Freeman,  of  this  vessel,  tells 
what  he  experienced  in  the  following  thrilling  language  : 


62  MOUNT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

"St.  Lucia,  British  West  Indies,  May  1 1. — The  st&-3im&v Roddam, 
of  which  I  am  captain,  left  St,  Lucia  at  midnight  of  May  7,  and 
was  off  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  at  6  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the 
8th.  I  noticed  that  the  volcano,  Mont  Pelee,  was  smoking,  and 
crept  slowly  in  toward  the  bay,  finding  there  among  others  the 
steamer  Roraima,  the  telegraph  repairing  steamer  Grappler  and 
four  sailing  vessels.  I  went  to  anchorage  between  7  and  8  and  had 
hardly  moored  when  the  side  of  the  volcano  opened  out  with  a 
terrible  explosion.  A  wall  of  fire  swept  over  the  town  and  the  bay. 
The  Roddam  was  struck  broadside  by  the  burning  mass.  The 
shock  to  the  ship  was  terrible,  nearly  capsizing  her. 

AWFUL    RESULTS 

'  Hearing  the  awful  report  of  the  explosion  and  seeing  the 
great  wall  of  flames  approaching  the  steamer,  those  on  deck  sought 
shelter  wherever  it  was  possible,  jumping  into  the  cabin,  the  fore- 
castle and  even  into  the  hold.  I  was  in  the  chart  room,  but  the 
burning  embers  were  borne  by  so  swift  a  movement  of  the  air  that 
they  were  swept  in  through  the  door  and  port  holes,  suffocating  and 
scorching  me  badly.  I  was  terribly  burned  by  these  embers  about 
the  face  and  hands,  but  managed  to  reach  the  deck.  Then,  as  soon 
as  it  was  possible,  I  mustered  the  few  survivors  who  seemed 
able  to  move,  ordered  them  to  slip  the  anchor,  leaped  for  the  bridge 
and  ran  the  engine  for  full  speed  astern.  The  second  and  the  third 
engineer  and  a  fireman  were  on  watch  below  and  so  escaped  injury. 
They  did  their  part  in  the  attempt  to  escape,  but  the  men  on  deck 
could  not  work  the  steering  gear  because  it  was  jammed  by  the 
debris  from  the  volcano.  We  accordingly  went  ahead  and  astern 
until  the  gear  was  free,  but  in  this  running  backward  and  forward 
it  was  two  hours  after  the  first  shock  before  we  were  clear  of  the  bay. 


64  MOUNT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

"One  of  the  most  terrifying  conditions  was  that,  the  atmosphere 
being  charged  with  ashes,  it  was  totally  dark.  The  sun  was  com- 
pletely obscured,  and  the  air  was  only  illuminated  by  the  flames  from 
the  volcano  and  those  of  the  burning  town  and  shipping.  It  seems 
small  to  say  that  the  scene  was  terrifying  in  the  extreme.  As  we 
backed  out  we  passed  close  to  the  Roi^aima,  which  was  one  mass  of 
blaze.  The  steam  was  rushino^  from  the  enorine  room,  and  the 
screams  of  those  on  board  were  terrible  to  hear.  The  cries  for  help 
were  all  in  vain,  for  I  could  do  nothing  but  save  my  own  ship. 
When  I  last  saw  the  Rorauna  she  was  settling  down  by  the  stern. 
That  was  about  to  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

"When  the  Roddam  was  safely  out  of  the  harbor  of  St.  Pierre, 
with  its  desolations  and  horrors,  I  made  for  St.  Lucia.  Arriving 
there,  and  when  the  ship  was  safe,  I  mustered  the  survivors  as  well 
as  I  was  able  and  searched  for  the  dead  and  injured.  Some  I  found 
in  the  saloon  where  they  had  vainly  sought  for  safety,  but  the  cabins 
were  full  of  burning  embers  that  had  blown  in  through  the  port 
holes.  Through  these  the  fire  swept  as  through  funnels  and  burned 
the  victims  where  they  lay  or  stood,  leaving  a  circular  imprint  of 
scorched  and  burned  flesh.  I  brought  ten  on  deck  who  were  thus 
burned;  two  of  them  were  dead,  the  others  survived,  although  in  a 
dreadful  state  of  torture  from  their  burns.  Their  screams  of  agony 
were  heartrending.  Out  of  a  total  of  twenty-three  on  board  the 
Roddam,  which  includes  the  captain  and  the  crew,  ten  are  dead  and 
several  are  in  the  hospital.  My  first  and  second  mates,  my  chief 
engineer  and  my  supercargo,  Campbell  by  name,  were  killed.  The 
ship  was  covered  from  stem  to  stern  with  tons  of  powdered  lava, 
which  retained  its  heat  for  hours  after  it  had  fallen.  In  many  cases 
it  was  practically  incandescent,  and  to  move  about  the  deck  in  this 
burning  mass  was  not  only  difficult  but  absolutely  perilous.     I  am 


A  TYPICAL  STREET  SCENE  IN  ST. 

Copyrigbt.J.  Murray  Jordan. 


PIERRE,  MARTINIQUE 


GROUP   OF  CHARACTERISTIC   PICTURES 
I.    An  Interior  View  of  a  Modern  House.       2.    A  Farmer's  Plantation.       3.    The  Home  of  a  Go 

4.   A  Beautiful  Garden  Vista. 


Government  Ofticial 


FOUR  TYPICAL  LADIES  OF  THE  WINDWARD  ISLANDS 


>   ■■'  -y^-'- 


A  GROUP  OF  CHARACTERISTIC  PICTURES 

(1.)     An  Ancient  Volcanic  Peak.        (2)     A  Street  Corner  in  Trinidad.         (3)     A  View  of  Hamilton, 
Bermuda,  where  Ashes  Fell.         (4)     Landing  of  Relief  Ship. 


JAPANESE  REGIONS  DEVASTATED  BY    A   GREAT  EARTHQUAKE 


A  ROUGH  MOUNTAIN  STREAM  IN  MARTINIQUE 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  65 

only  now  able  to  begin  thoroughly  to  clear  and  search  the  ship  for 
any  damage  done  by  this  volcanic  rain,  and  to  see  if  there  are  any 
corpses  in  out-of-the-way  places.  For  instance,  this  morning,  I  found 
one  body  in  the  peak  of  the  forecastle.  The  body  was  horribly  burned 
and  the  sailor  had  evidently  crept  in  there  in  his  agony  to  die. 

"  On  the  arrival  of  the  Roddam  at  St.  Lucia  the  ship  presented 
an  appalling  appearance.  Dead  and  calcined  bodies  lay  about  the 
deck,  which  was  also  crowded  with  injured,  helpless  and  suffering 
people.  Prompt  assistance  was  rendered  to  the  injured  by  the 
authorities  here  and  my  poor,  tortured  men  were  taken  to  the  hos- 
pital. The  dead  were  buried.  I  have  omitted  to  mention  that 
out  of  twenty-one  black  laborers  that  I  brought  from  Grenada  to 
help  in  stevedoring,  only  six  survived.  Most  of  the  others  threw 
themselves  overboard  to  escape  a  dreadful  fate,  but  they  met  a 
worse  one,  for  it  is  an  actual  fact  that  the  water  around  the  ship 
was  literally  at  a  boiling  heat.  The  escape  of  my  vessel  was  miracu- 
lous. The  woodwork  of  the  cabins  and  bridge  and  everything  in- 
flammable on  deck  were  constantly  igniting,  and  it  was  with  great 
difficulty  that  we  few  survivors  managed  to  keep  the  flames  down. 
My  ropes,  awnings,  tarpaulins  were  completely  burned  up. 

"  I  witnessed  the  entire  destruction  of  St.  Pierre.  The  flames 
enveloped  the  town  in  every  quarter  with  such  rapidity  that  it  was 
impossible  that  any  person  could  be  saved.  As  I  have  said,  the 
day  was  suddenly  turned  to  night,  but  I  could  distinguish  by  the 
light  of  the  burning  town  people  distractedly  running  about  on  the 
beach.  The  burning  buildings  stood  out  from  the  surrounding 
darkness  like  black  shadows.  All  this  time  the  mountain  was  roar- 
ing and  shaking,  and  in  the  intervals  between  these  terrifying  sounds 
I  could  hear  the  cries  of  despair  and  agony  from  the  thousands  who 
were  perishing.  These  cries  added  to  the  terror  of  the  scene,  but 
5 


66  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

it  is  impossible  to  describe  its  horror  or  the  dreadful  sensations  it 
produced.     It  was  like  witnessing  the  end  of  the  world. 

"  Let  me  add  that,  after  the  first  shock  was  over,  the  survivors 
of  the  crew  rendered  willing  help  to  navigate  the  ship  to  this  port. 
Mr.  Plissoneau,  our  agent  in  Martinique,  happening  to  be  on  board, 
was  saved,  and  I  really  believe  that  he  is  the  only  survivor  of  St. 
Pierre.     As  it  is,  he  is  seriously  burned  on  the  hands  and  face. 

"FREEMAN, 
"  Master  British  Steamship  Roddam^ 

THE    "  ETONA  "    PASSES    ST.    PIERRE 

The  British  steamer  Etona,  of  the  Norton  Line,  stopped  at 
St.  Lucia  to  coal  on  May  loth.  Captain  Cantell  there  visited  the 
Roddain  diud.  had  an  interview  with  Captain  Freeman.  On  the  nth 
the  Etona  put  to  sea  again,  passing  St.  Pierre  in  the  afternoon. 
We  subjoin  her  captain's  story  : 

"  The  weather  was  clear  and  we  had  a  fine  view,  but  the  old 
outlines  of  St.  Pierre  were  not  recognizable.  Everything  was  a 
mass  of  blue  lava,  and  the  formation  of  the  land  itself  seemed  to 
have  changed.  When  we  were  about  eight  miles  off  the  northern 
end  of  the  island  Mount  Pelee  began  to  belch  a  second  time. 
Clouds  of  smoke  and  lava  shot  into  the  air  and  spread  over  all  the 
sea,  darkening  the  sun.  Our  decks  in  a  few  minutes  were  covered 
with  a  substance  that  looked  like  sand  dyed  a  bluish  tint,  and  which 
smelled  like  phosphorus.  For  all  that  the  day  was  clear,  there  was 
little  to  be  seen  satisfactorily.  Over  the  island  there  hung  a  blue 
haze.  It  seemed  to  me  that  the  formation,  the  topography,  of  the 
island  was  altered. 

"  Everything  seemed  to  be  covered  with  a  blue  dust,  such  as 
had  fallen  aboard  us  every  day  since  we  had  been  within  the  affected 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  67 

region.  It  was  blue  lava  dust.  For  more  than  an  hour  we  scanned 
the  coast  with  our  glasses,  now  and  then  discovering  something 
that  looked  like  a  ruined  hamlet  or  collection  of  buildings.  There 
was  no  life  visible.  Suddenly  we  realized  that  we  might  have  to 
fight  for  our  lives  as  the  Roddmns  people  had  done. 

"  We  were  about  four  miles  off  the  northern  end  of  the  island 
when  suddenly  there  shot  up  in  the  air  to  a  tremendous  height  a 
column  of  smoke.  The  sky  darkened  and  the  smoke  seemed  to 
swirl  down  upon  us.  In  fact,  it  spread  all  around,  darkening  the 
atmosphere  as  far  as  we  could  see.  I  called  Chief  Engineer  Far- 
rish  to  the  deck. 

"  '  Do  you  see  that  over  there  ?'  I  asked,  pointing  to  the 
eruption,  for  it  was  the  second  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee.  He  saw 
it  all  right.     Captain  Freeman's  story  was  fresh  in  my  mind. 

"  '  Well,  Farrish,  rush  your  engines  as  they  have  never  been 
rushed  before,'  I  said  to  him.  He  went  below,  and  soon  we  began 
to  burn  coal  and  pile  up  the  feathers  in  our  forefoot. 

"  I  was  on  watch  with  Second  Officer  Gibbs.  At  once  we 
began  to  furl  awnings  and  make  secure  against  fire.  The  crew 
were  all  showing  an  anxious  spirit,  and  everybody  on  board,  includ- 
ing the  four  passengers,  were  serious  and  apprehensive. 

"  We  began  to  cut  through  the  water  at  almost  twelve  knots. 
Ordinarily  we  make  ten  knots.  We  could  see  no  more  of  the  land 
contour,  but  everything  seemed  to  be  enveloped  in  a  great  cloud. 
There  was  no  fire  visible,  but  the  lava  dust  rained  down  upon  us 
steadily.  In  less  than  an  hour  there  were  two  inches  of  it  upon 
our  deck. 

"  The  air  smelled  like  phosphorous.  No  one  dared  to  look 
up  to  try  to  locate  the  sun,  because  one's  eyes  would  fill  with  lava 
dust.     Some  of  the   blue   lava  dust   is  sticking  to  our  mast  yet, 


68  MONT  PRLRE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OR  DRATH 

although  we  have  swabbed 'decks  and  rigging  again  and  again  to  be 
clear  of  it. 

"  After  a  little  more  than  an  hour's  fast  running  we  saw  day- 
ligrht  ahead  and  begran  to  breathe  easier.  If  I  had  not  talked 
with  Captain  Freeman  and  heard  from  him  just  how  the  black 
swirl  of  wind  and  fire  rolled  down  upon  him,  I  would  not  have 
been  so  apprehensive,  but  would  have  thought  that  the  darkness 
and  cloud  that  came  down  upon  us  meant  just  an  unusually  heavy 
squall.' 

CHIEF    ENGINEER    FARRISH's    STORV 

"  The  Etonas  run  from  Montevideo  was  a  fast  one — I  think 
a  record  breaker.  We  were  22  days  and  2 1  hours  from  port  to  port. 
Off  Martinique  I  stared  at  the  coast  for  about  an  hour,  and 
then  went  below.  The  blue  lava  that  covered  everything  faded 
into  the  haze  that  hung  over  the  island  so  that  nothing  was  dis- 
tinctly visible.  Through  my  glass  I  discovered  a  stream  of  lava, 
thoueh.  It  stretched  down  the  mountain  side,  and  seemed  to  be 
flowing  into  the  sea.  It  was  not  clearly  and  distinctly  visible, 
however. 

"  About  3  o'clock  I  went  below  to  take  forty  winks.  I  had 
been  in  my  berth  only  a  few  minutes  when  the  steward  told  me  the 
captain  wanted  me  on  the  bridge. 

'  '  Do  you  see  that,  Farrish  ?'  he  asked,  pointing  at  the  land. 
An  outburst  of  smoke  seemed  to  be  sweeping  down  upon  us.  It 
made  me  think  of  the  Roddam  s  experience.  Smoke  and  dust 
closed  in  about  us,  shutting  out  the  sunlight,  and  precipitating  a  fall 
of  lava  on  our  decks. 

"  'Go  below  and  drive  her,'  said  the  captain,  and  I  didn't  lose 
any  time,  I  can  tell  you.      We  burned  coal   as  though  it  didn't  cost 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  69 

a  cent.  The  safety  valve  was  jumping  every  second,  even  though 
we  were  making  twelve  knots  an  hour.  For  two  hours  we  kept  up 
the  pace,  and  then,  running  into  clear  daylight,  let  the  engines  slow 
down  and  we  all  cheered  up  a  bit." 

CAPTAIN    CANTELL    VISITS    THE    "  RODDAM  " 

Captain  Cantell  went  on  board  the  Roddam,  whose  frightful 
condition  he  thus  describes  : 

"At  St.  Lucia,  on  May  iith,  I  went  on  board  the  British 
steamship  Roddam,  which  had  escaped  from  the  terrible  volcanic 
eruption  at  Martinique  two  days  before.  The  state  of  the  ship 
was  enough  to  show  that  those  on  board  must  have  undergone  an 
awful  experience. 

"The  Roddam  was  covered  with  a  mass  of  fine  bluish  gray 
dust  or  ashes  of  cement-like  appearance.  In  some  parts  it  lay  two 
feet  deep  on  the  decks.  This  matter  had  fallen  in  a  red-hot  state 
all  over  the  steamer,  setting  fire  to  everything  it  struck  that  was 
burnable,  and,  when  it  fell  on  the  men  on  board,  burning  off  limbs 
and  large  pieces  of  flesh.  This  was  shown  by  finding  portions  of 
human  flesh  when  the  decks  were  cleared  of  the  debris.  The  rig- 
ging, ropes,  tarpaulins,  sails,  awnings,  etc.,  were  charred  or  burned, 
and  most  of  the  upper  stanchions  and  spars  were  swept  over- 
board or  destroyed  by  fire.  Skylights  were  smashed  and  cabins 
were  filled  with  volcanic  dust.     The  scene  of  ruin  was  deplorable. 

"The  captain,  though  suffering  the  greatest  agony,  succeeded  in 
navigating  his  vessel  safely  to  the  port  of  Castries,  St.  Lucia,  with 
eighteen  dead  bodies  on  the  deck  and  human  limbs  scattered  about. 
A  sailor  stood  by  constantly  wiping  the  captain's  injured  eyes. 

"  I  think  the  performance  of  the  Roddam' s  captain  was  most 
wonderful,  and  the  more  so  when  I  saw  his  pitiful  condition.      I  do 


70  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

not  understand  how  he  kept  up,  yet  when  the  steamer  arrived  at 
St.  Lucia  and  medical  assistance  was  procured,  this  brave  man 
asked  the  doctors  to  attend  to  the  others  first  and  refused  to  be 
treated  until  this  was  done. 

"  My  interview  with  the  captain  brought  out  this  account.  I 
left  him  in  good  spirits  and  receiving  every  comfort.  The  sight  of 
his  face  would  frighten  anyone  not  prepared  to  see  it." 

THE    VIVID    ACCOUNT    OF    M.    ALBERT 

To  the  accounts  given  by  the  survivors  of  the  Roraima  and  the 
officers  of  the  Etona,  it  will  be  well  to  add  the  following  graphic 
story  told  by  M.  Albert,  a  planter  of  the  island,  the  owner  of  an 
estate  situated  only  a  mile  to  the  northeast  of  the  burning  crater  of 
Mont  Pelee.  His  escape  from  death  had  in  it  something  of  the 
marvellous.      He  says  : 

"  Mont  Pelee  had  given  warning  of  the  destruction  that  was  to 
come,  but  we,  who  had  looked  upon  the  volcano  as  harmless,  did 
not  believe  that  it  would  do  more  than  spout  fire  and  steam,  as  it 
had  done  on  other  occasions.  It  was  a  little  before  eight  o'clock  on 
the  morning  of  May  8  that  the  end  came.  I  was  in  one  of  the  fields 
of  my  estate  when  the  ground  trembled  under  my  feet,  not  as  it 
does  when  the  earth  quakes,  but  as  though  a  terrible  struggle  was 
going  on  within  the  mountain.  A  terror  came  upon  me,  but  I  could 
not  explain  my  fear. 

"  As  I  stood  still  Mont  Pelee  seemed  to  shudder,  and  a  moaning 
sound  issued  from  its  crater.  It  was  quite  dark,  the  sun  being  ob- 
scured by  ashes  and  fine  volcanic  dust.  The  air  was  dead  about 
me,  so  dead  that  the  floating  dust  seemingly  was  not  disturbed. 
Then  there  was  a  rending,  crashing,  grinding  noise,  which  I  can 
only  describe  as  sounding  as  though  every  bit  of  machinery  m  the 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  71 

world  had  suddenly  broken  down.  It  was  deafening,  and  the  flash 
of  light  that  accompanied  it  was  blinding,  more  so  than  any  light- 
ning I  have  ever  seen. 

"  It  was  like  a  terrible  hurricane,  and  where  a  fraction  of  a 
second  before  there  had  been  a  perfect  calm,  I  felt  myself  drawn 
into  a  vortex  and  I  had  to  brace  myself  firmly.  It  was  like  a  great 
express  train  rushing  by,  and  I  was  drawn  by  its  force.  The  mys- 
terious force  levelled  a  row  of  strong  trees,  tearing  them  up  by  the 
roots  and  leaving  bare  a  space  of  ground  fifteen  yards  wide  and 
more  than  one  hundred  yards  long.  Transfixed  I  stood,  not  know- 
ing in  what  direction  to  flee.  I  looked  toward  Mont  Pelee,  and 
above  its  apex  there  appeared  a  great  black  cloud  which  reached  high 
in  the  air.  U  literally  fell  upon  the  city  of  St.  Pierre.  It  moved  with 
a  rapidity  that  made  it  impossible  for  anything  to  escape  it.  From 
the  cloud  came  explosions  that  sounded  as  though  all  of  the  navies 
of  the  world  were  in  titanic  combat.  Lightning  played  in  and  out 
in  broad  forks,  the  result  being  that  intense  darkness  was  followed 
by  light  that  seemed  to  be  of  magnifying  power. 

"  That  St.  Pierre  was  doomed  I  knew,  but  I  was  prevented 
from  seeing  the  destruction  by  a  spur  of  the  hill  that  shut  off  the 
view  of  the  city.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  tell  how  long  I  stood 
there  inert.  Probably  it  was  only  a  few  seconds,  but  so  vivid  were 
my  impressions  that  it  now  seems  as  though  I  stood  as  a  spectator 
for  many  minutes.  When  I  recovered  possession  of  my  senses  I 
ran  to  my  house  and  collected  the  members  of  the  family,  all  of 
whom  were  panic  stricken.  I  hurried  them  to  the  seashore,  where 
we  boarded  a  small  steamship,  in  which  we  made  the  trip  in  safety 
to  Fort  de  France. 

"  I  know  that  there  was  no  flame  in  the  first  wave  that  was 
sent  down  upon  St.  Pierre.      It  was  a  heavy  gas,  like  firedamp,  and 


72  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

it  must  have  asphyxiated  the  inhabitants  before  they  were  touched 
by  the  fire,  which  quickly  followed.  As  we  drew  out  to  sea  in  the 
small  steamship,  Mont  Pelee  was  in  the  throes  of  a  terrible  convul- 
sion. New  craters  seemed  to  be  opening  all  about  the  summit  and 
lava  was  flowing  in  broad  streams  in  every  direction.  My  estate 
was  ruined  while  we  were  still  in  sight  of  it.  Many  women  who 
lived  in  St.  Pierre  escaped  only  to  know  that  they  were  left 
widowed  and  childless.  This  is  because  many  of  the  wealthier  men 
sent  their  wives  away,  while  they  remained  in  St.  Pierre  to  attend 
to  their  business  affairs." 

WHAT    HAPPENED    ON    THE    "  HORACE " 

The  British  steamer  Horace  experienced  the  effect  of  the  explo- 
sion when  farther  from  land.  After  touching  at  Barbados,  she 
reached  the  vicinity  of  Martinique  on  May  9th,  her  decks  being 
covered  with  several  inches  of  dust  when  she  was  a  hundred  and 
twenty-five  miles  distant.     We  quote  engineer  Anderson's  story  : 

"  On  the  afternoon  of  May  8  (Thursday)  we  noticed  a  peculiar 
haze  in  the  direction  of  Martinique.  The  air  seemed  heavy  and 
oppressive.  The  weather  conditions  were  not  at  all  unlike  those 
which  precede  the  great  West  Indian  hurricanes,  but,  knowing  it 
was  not  the  season  of  the  year  for  them,  we  all  remarked  in  the 
engine  room  that  there  must  be  a  heavy  storm  approaching. 

"Several  of  the  sailors,  experienced  deep  water  seamen,  laughed 
at  our  prognostications,  and  informed  us  there  would  be  no  storm 
within  the  next  sixty  hours,  and  insisted  that,  according  to  all 
fo'cas'le  indications,  a  dead  calm  was  in  sight. 

"  So  unusually  peculiar  were  the  weather  conditions  that  we 
talked  of  nothing  else  during  the  evening.  That  night,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Martinique,  there  was  a  very  black  sky,  an  unusual  thing  at 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  73 

this  season  of  the  year,  and  a  storm  was  apparently  brewing  in  a 
direction  from  which  storms  do  not  come  at  this  season. 

GREAT    FLASHES    OF    LIGHT 

"  As  the  night  wore  on  those  on  watch  noticed  what  appeared 
to  be  great  flashes  of  lightning  in  the  direction  of  Martinique.  It 
seemed  as  though  the  ordinary  conditions  were  reversed,  and  even 
the  fo'cas'le  prophets  were  unable  to  offer  explanations. 

"  Occasionally,  over  the  pounding  of  the  engines  and  the  rush  of 
water,  we  thought  we  could  hear  long,  deep  roars,  not  unlike  the 
ending  of  a  deep  peal  of  thunder.  Several  times  we  heard  the 
rumble  or  roar,  but  at  the  time  we  were  not  certain  as  to  exactly 
what  it  was,  or  even  whether  we  really  heard  it. 

"  There  would  suddenly  come  great  flashes  of  light  from  the 
dark  bank  toward  Martinique.  Some  of  them  seemed  to  spread 
over  a  great  area,  while  others  appeared  to  spout  skyward,  funnel 
shaped.  All  night  this  continued,  and  it  was  not  imtil  day  came 
that  the  flashes  disappeared.  The  dark  bank  that  covered  the  hori- 
zon toward  Martinique,  however,  did  not  fade  away  with  the  break- 
ing of  day,  and  at  eight  in  the  morning  of  the  9th  (Friday)  the 
whole  section  of  the  sky  in  that  direction  seemed  dark  and  troubled. 

"  About  nine  o'clock  Friday  morning  I  was  sitting  on  one  of 
the  hatches  aft  with  some  of  the  other  engineers  and  officers  of  the 
ship,  discussing  the  peculiar  weather  phenomena.  I  noticed  a  sort 
of  grit  that  got  into  my  mouth  from  the  end  of  the  cigar  I  was 
smoking. 

"  I  attributed  it  to  some  rather  bad  coal  which  we  had  shipped 
aboard,  and,  turning  to  Chief  Engineer  Evans,  I  remarked  that 
'  that  coal  was  mighty  dirty,'  and  he  said  that  it  was  covering  the 
ship  with  a  sort  of  grit     Then  I  noticed  that  grit  was  getting  on 


74  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

my  clothes,  and  finally  some  one  suggested  that  we  go  forward  of 
the  funnels,  so  we  would  not  get  dirt  on  us.  As  we  went  forward 
we  met  one  or  two  of  the  sailors  from  the  forecastle,  who  wanted  to 
know  about  the  dust  that  was  falling  on  the  ship.  Then  we  found 
that  the  grayish-looking  ash  was  sifting  all  over  the  ship,  both  for- 
ward and  aft. 

ASHES    RAINED    ON    THE    SHIP 

"  Every  moment  the  ashes  rained  down  all  over  the  ship,  and 
at  the  same  time  grew  thicker.  A  few  moments  later,  the  lookout 
called  down  that  we  were  running  into  a  fog-bank  dead  ahead.  Fog 
banks  in  that  section  are  unheard  of  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning 
at  this  season,  and  we  were  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  land, 
and  what  could  fog  and  sand  be  doing  there. 

"  Before  we  knew  it,  we  went  into  the  fog,  which  proved  to  be 
a  big  dense  bank  of  this  same  sand,  and  it  rained  down  on  us  from 
every  side.  Ventilators  were  quickly  brought  to  their  places,  and 
later  even  the  hatches  were  battened  down.  The  dust  became  suffo- 
cating, and  the  men  at  times  had  all  they  could  do  to  keep  from 
choking.  What  the  stuff  was  we  could  not  at  first  conjecture,  or 
rather,  we  didn't  have  much  time  to  speculate  on  it,  for  we  had  to 
get  our  ship  in  shape  to  withstand  we  hardly  knew  what. 

"  At  first  we  thought  that  the  sand  must  have  been  blown  from 
shore.  Then  we  decided  that  if  the  Captain's  figures  were  right  we 
wouldn't  be  near  enough  to  shore  to  have  sand  blow  on  us,  and  as 
we  had  just  cleared  Barbados,  we  knew  that  the  Captain's  figures 
had  to  be  right. 

"Just  as  the  storm  of  sand  was  at  its  height.  Fourth  Engineer 
Wild  was  nearly  suffocated  by  it,  but  was  easily  revived.  About 
this  time  it  became  so  dark  that  we  found  it  necessary  to  start  up 
the  electric  lights,  and  it  was  not  until  after  we  got  clear  from  the 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  75 

fog  that  we  turned  the  current  off.  In  the  meantime  they  had 
burned  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  after  two  in  the  after- 
iioon. 

THE    ENGINE    BECAME    CHOKED 

"Then  there  was  another  anxious  moment  shortly  after  nine 
o'clock.  Third  Engineer  Rennie  had  been  running  the  donkey 
engine,  when  suddenly  it  choked,  and  when  he  finally  got  it  clear 
from  the  sand  or  ashes,  he  found  the  valves  were  all  cut  out,  and 
then  it  was  we  discovered  that  it  was  not  sand,  but  some  sort  of  a 
composition  that  seemed  to  cut  steel  like  emery.  Then  came  the 
danger  that  it  would  get  into  the  valves  of  the  engine  and  cut  them 
out,  and  for  several  moments  all  hands  scurried  about  and  helped 
make  the  engine  room  tight,  and  even  then  the  ash  drifted  in  and 
kept  all  the  engine  room  force  wiping  the  engines  clear  of  it. 

"  Toward  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  Friday  we  were 
practically  clear  of  the  sand,  but  at  eleven  o'clock  that  night  we  ran 
into  a  second  bank  of  it,  though  not  as  bad  as  the  first.  We  made 
some  experiments,  and  found  the  stuff  was  superior  to  emery  dust. 
It  cut  deeper  and  quicker,  and  only  about  half  as  much  was  required 
to  do  the  work.  We  made  up  our  minds  we  would  keep  what  came 
on  board,  as  it  was  better  than  the  emery  dust  and  much  cheaper, 
so  we  gathered  it  up. 

"That  night  there  were  more  of  the  same  electric  phenomena 
toward  Martinique,  but  it  was  not  until  we  got  into  St.  Lucia,  where 
we  saw  the  Roddam,  that  we  learned  of  the  terrible  disaster  at  St. 
Pierre,  and  then  we  knew  that  our  sand  was  lava  dust." 

The  volcanic  ash  which  fell  on  the  decks   of  the  Horace  was 
ground  as  fine  as  rifle  powder,  and  was  much  finer  than  that  which  ' 
covered  the  decks  of  the  Etona. 


76  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

Returning  to  the  stories  told  by  officers  of  the  Roraima,  of 
which  a  number  have  been  given,  it  seems  desirable  to  add  here 
the  narrative  of  Ellery  S.  Scott,  the  mate  of  the  ruined  ship,  since 
it  gives  a  vivid  and  striking  account  of  his  personal  experience  of 
the  frightful  disaster,  with  many  details  of  interest  not  related  by 
others. 

MATE    SCOTT's    GRAPHIC    STORY 

"We  got  to  St.  Pierre  in  the  Roraima,''  began  Mr.  Scott,  "at 
6.30  o'clock  on  Thursday  morning.  That's  the  morning  the  moun- 
tain and  the  town  and  the  ships  were  all  sent  to  hell  in  a  minute. 

"All  hands  had  had  breakfast.  I  was  standing  on  the  fo'c's'l 
head  trying  to  make  out  the  marks  on  the  pipes  of  a  ship  'way  out 
and  heading  for  St.  Lucia.  I  wasn't  looking  at  the  mountain  at 
all.  But  I  guess  the  captain  was,  for  he  was  on  the  bridge,  and  the 
last  time  I  heard  him  speak  was  when  he  shouted,  '  Heave  up,  Mr. 
Scott ;  heave  up.'  I  gave  the  order  to  the  men,  and  I  think  some 
of  them  did  jump  to  get  the  anchor  up,  but  nobody  knows  what 
really  happened  for  the  next  fifteen  minutes.  I  turned  around  to- 
ward the  captain  and  then  I  saw  the  mountain. 

"  Did  you  ever  see  the  tide  come  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  It 
doesn't  sneak  in  a  little  at  a  time  as  it  does  'round  here.  It  rolls 
in  in  waves.  That's  the  way  the  cloud  of  fire  and  mud  and  white- 
hot  stones  rolled  down  from  that  volcano  over  the  town  and  over 
the  ships.  It  was  on  us  in  almost  no  time,  but  I  saw  it  and  in  the 
same  glance  I  saw  our  captain  bracing  himself  to  meet  it  on  the 
bridge.  He  was  facing  the  fire  cloud  with  both  hands  gripped  hard 
to  the  bridge  rail,  his  legs  apart  and  his  knees  braced  back  stiff. 
I've  seen  him  brace  himself  that  same  way  many  a  time  in  a  tough 
sea  with  the  spray  going  mast-head  high  and  green  water  pouring 
along  the  decks. 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  77 

"  I  saw  the  captain,  I  say,  at  the  same  instant  I  saw  that  ruin 
coming  down  on  us.  I  don't  know  why,  but  that  last  glimpse  of 
poor  Muggah  on  his  bridge  will  stay  with  me  just  as  long  as  I 
remember  St.  Pierre  and  that  will  be  long  enough. 

"  In  another  instant  it  was  all  over  for  him.  As  I  was  looking 
at  him  he  was  all  ablaze.  He  reeled  and  fell  on  the  bridge  with  his 
face  toward  me.  His  mustache  and  eyebrows  were  gone  in  a  jiffy. 
His  hat  had  gone,  and  his  hair  was  aflame,  and  so  were  his  clothes 
from  head  to  foot.  I  knew  he  was  conscious  when  he  fell,  by 
the  look  in  his  eyes,  but  he  didn't  make  a  sound. 

"  That  all  happened  a  long  way  inside  of  half  a  minute  ;  then 
something  new  happened.  When  the  wave  of  fire  was  going  over 
us,  a  tidal  wave  of  the  sea  came  out  from  the  shore  and  did  the  rest. 
That  wall  of  rushing  water  was  so  high  and  so  solid  that  it  seemed  to 
rise  up  and  join  the  smoke  and  flame  above.  For  an  instant  we 
could  see  nothingr  but  the  water  and  the  flame. 

*'  That  tidal  wave  picked  the  ship  up  like  a  canoe  and  then 
smashed  her.  After  one  list  to  starboard  the  ship  righted,  but  the 
masts,  the  bridge,  the  funnel  and  all  the  upper  works  had  gone 
overboard. 

"  I  had  saved  myself  from  fire  by  jamming  a  metal  ventilator 
cover  over  my  head  and  jumping  from  the  fo'c's'l  head.  Two  St. 
Kitts  negroes  saved  me  from  the  water  by  grabbing  me  by  the  legs 
and  pulling  me  down  into  the  fo'c's'l  after  them.  Before  I  could 
get  up  three  men  tumbled  in  on  top  of  me.     Two  of  them  were  dead. 

"  Captain  Muggah  went  overboard,  still  clinging  to  the  frag- 
ments of  his  wrecked  bridge.  Daniel  Taylor,  the  ship's  cooper,  and 
a  Kitts  native  jumped  overboard  to  save  him.  Taylor  managed  to 
push  the  captain  on  to  a  hatch  that  had  floated  off  from  us  and  then 
they  swam  back  to  the  ship  for  more  assistance,  but  nothing  could  be 


78  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

done  for  the  captain.  Taylor  wasn't  sure  he  was  alive.  The  last 
we  saw  of  him  or  his  dead  body  it  was  drifting  shoreward  on 
that  hatch. 

"  Well,  after  staying  in  the  fo'c's'l  about  twenty  minutes,  I 
went  out  on  deck.  There  were  just  four  of  us  left  aboard  who 
could  do  anything.  The  four  were  Thompson,  Dan  Taylor, 
Quashee,  and  myself.  It  was  still  raining  fire  and  hot  rocks  and  you 
could  hardly  see  a  ship's  length  for  dust  and  ashes,  but  we  could 
stand  that.  There  were  burning  men  and  some  women  and 
two  or  three  children  lying  around  the  deck.  Not  just  burned,  but 
burning,  then,  when  we  got  to  them.  More  than  half  the  ship's 
company  had  been  killed  in  that  fir<?t  rush  of  flame.  Some  had 
rolled  overboard  when  the  tidal  wave  came  and  we  never  saw  so 
much  as  their  bodies.  The  cook  was  burned  to  death  in  his  galley. 
He  had  been  paring  potatoes  for  dinner  and  what  was  left  of  his 
right  hand  held  the  shank  of  his  potato  knife.  The  wooden  handle 
was  in  ashes.  All  that  happened  to  a  man  in  less  than  a  minute. 
The  donkey  engineman  was  killed  on  deck  sitting  in  front  of  his 
boiler.  We  found  parts  of  some  bodies — a  hand,  or  an  arm  or  a 
leg.      Below  decks  there  were  some  twenty  alive. 

"  The  ship  was  on  fire,  of  course,  what  was  left  of  it.  The 
stumps  of  both  masts  were  blazing.  Aft  she  was  like  a  furnace,  but 
forward  the  flames  had  not  got  below  deck,  so  we  four  carried  those 
who  were  still  alive  on  deck  into  the  fo'c's'l.  All  of  them  were 
burned  and  most  of  them  were  half  strangled. 

"  One  boy,  a  passenger  and  just  a  little  shaver  [the  four-year- 
old  son  of  the  late  Clement  Stokes,  above  spoken  of]  was  picked 
up  naked.  His  hair  and  all  his  clothing  had  been  burned  off,  but 
he  was  alive.  We  rolled  him  in  a  blanket  and  put  him  in  a  sailor's 
bunk.     A  few  minutes  later  we  looked  at  him  and  he  was  dead. 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  79 

"  My  own  son's  gone,  too.  It  had  been  his  trick  at  lookout 
ahead  during  the  dog  watch  that  morning,  when  we  were  making 
for  St.  Pierre,  so  I  supposed  at  first  when  the  fire  struck  us  that  he 
was  asleep  in  his  bunk  and  safe.  But  he  wasn't.  Nobody  could 
tell  me  where  he  was.  I  don't  know  whether  he  was  burned  to 
death  or  rolled  overboard  and  drowned.  He  was  a  likely  boy.  He 
had  been  several  voyages  with  me  and  would  have  been  a  master 
some  day.      He  used  to  say  he'd  make  me  mate. 

"  After  getting  all  hands  that  had  any  life  left  in  them  below 
and  'tended  to  the  best  we  could,  the  four  of  us  that  were  left  half 
way  ship-shape  started  in  to  fight  the  fire.  We  had  case  oil  stowed 
forward.  Thanks  to  that  tidal  wave  that  cleared  our  decks  there 
wasn't  much  left  to  burn,  so  we  got  the  fire  down  so's  we  could  live 
on  board  with  it  for  several  hours  more  and  then  the  four  turned 
to  to  knock  a  raft  together  out  of  what  timber  and  truck  we  could 
find  below.  Our  boats  had  gone  overboard  with  the  masts  and 
funnel. 

PREPARED    TO    TRUST    TO    LUCK 

"We  made  that  raft  for  something  over  thirty  that  were  alive. 
We  put  provisions  on  for  two  days  and  rigged  up  a  make-shift  mast 
and  sail,  for  we  intended  to  go  to  sea.  We  were  only  three  boats' 
length  from  the  shore,  but  the  shore  was  hell  itself.  We  intended 
to  put  straight  out  and  trust  to  luck  that  the  Korona,  that  was  about 
due  at  St.  Pierre,  would  pick  us  up.  But  we  did  not  have  to  risk 
the  raft,  for  about  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  we  were  almost 
ready  to  put  the  raft  overboard,  the  Suchet  came  along  and  took 
us  all  off.  We  thought  for  a  minute  just  after  we  were  wrecked 
that  we  were  to  get  help  from  a  ship  that  passed  us.  We  burned 
blue  lights,  but  she  kept  on.  We  learned  afterward  that  she  was 
the  Roddam." 


8o  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

Soundings  made  off  Martinique  after  the  explosion  showed 
that  earthquake  effects  of  much  importance  had  taken  place  under 
the  sea  bottom,  which  had  been  lifted  in  some  places  and  had  sunk 
in  others.  While  deep  crevices  had  been  formed  on  the  land,  a 
still  greater  effect  had  seemingly  been  produced  beneath  the  water. 
During  the  explosion  the  sea  withdrew  several  hundred  feet  from 
its  shore  line,  and  then  came  back  steaming  with  fury  ;  this  indi- 
cating a  lift  and  fall  of  the  ocean  bed  off  the  isle.  Soundings 
made  subsequently  near  the  island  found  in  one  place  a  depth  of 
4,000  feet  where  before  it  had  been  only  600  feet  deep.  The 
French  Cable  Company,  which  was  at  work  trying  to  repair  the 
cables  broken  by  the  eruption,  found  the  bottom  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea  so  changed  as  to  render  the  old  charts  useless. 

New  charts  will  need  to  be  made  for  future  navigation.  The 
changes  in  sea  levels  were  not  confined  to  the  immediate  centre  of 
volcanic  activity,  but  extended  as  far  north  as  Porto  Rico,  and  it 
was  believed  that  the  seismic  wave  would  be  found  to  have  altered 
the  ocean  bed  round  Jamaica.  Vessels  plying  between  St.  Thomas, 
Martinique,  St.  Lucia  and  other  islands  found  it  necessary  to  heave 
the  lead  while  many  miles  at  sea. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  sea  had  encroached  from  ten  feet  to 
two  miles  along  the  coast  of  St.  Vincent  near  Georgetown,  and  that 
a  section  on  the  north  of  the  island  had  dropped  into  the  sea.  Sound- 
ings showed  seven  fathoms  where  before  the  eruption  there  were 
thirty-six  fathoms  of  water.  Vessels  that  endeavored  to  approach 
St.  Vincent  toward  the  north  reported  that  it  was  impossible  to  get 
nearer  than  eight  miles  to  the  scene  of  the  catastrophe,  and  that 
at  that  distance  the  ocean  was  seriously  perturbed  as  from  a  sub- 
marine volcano,  boiling  and  hissing  continually. 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  8i 

In  this  connection  the  remarkable  experience  reported  by  the 
officers  of  the  Danish  steamship  Nordby,  on  the  day  preceding  the 
eruption,  is  of  much  interest,  as  seeming  to  show  great  convulsions 
of  the  sea  bottom  at  a  point  several  hundred  miles  from  Mar- 
tinique. The  following  is  the  story  told  by  Captain  Eric  Lillien- 
skjold  : 

THE    STRANGE    EXPERIENCE    OF    THE    "  NORDBY  " 

"On  May  5th,"  the  captain  said,  "we  touched  at  St.  Michael's 
for  water.  We  had  had  an  easy  voyage  from  Girgenti,  in  Sicily,  and 
we  wanted  to  finish  an  easy  run  here.  We  left  St.  Michael's  on  the 
same  day.  Nothing  worth  while  talking  about  occurred  until  two 
days  afterward — Wednesday,  May  7th. 

"  We  were  plodding  along  slowly  that  day.  About  noon  I 
took  the  bridge  to  make  an  observation.  It  seemed  to  be  hotter 
than  ordinary.  I  shed  my  coat  and  vest  and  got  into  what  little 
shade  there  was.  As  I  worked  it  grew  hotter  and  hotter.  I  didn't 
know  what  to  make  of  it.  Along  about  2  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
it  was  so  hot  that  all  hands  got  to  talking  about  it.  We  reckoned 
that  something  queer  was  coming  off,  but  none  of  us  could  explain 
what  it  was.  You  could  almost  see  the  pitch  softening  in  the 
seams. 

"  Then,  as  quick  as  you  could  toss  a  biscuit  over  its  rail,  the 
Nordby  dropped — regularly  dropped — three  or  four  feet  down  into 
the  sea.  No  sooner  did  it  do  this  than  big  waves,  that  looked  like 
they  were  coming  from  all  directions  at  once,  began  to  smash 
against  our  sides.  This  was  queerer  yet,  because  the  water  a  min- 
ute before  was  as  smooth  as  I  ever  saw  it.  I  had  all  hands  piped 
on  deck,  and  we  battened  down  everything  loose  to  make  ready  for 
a  storm.     And  we  got  it  all  right — the  strangest  storm  you  ever 

heard  tell  of. 
6 


82  MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

"  There  was  something  wrong  with  the  sun  that  afternoon.  It 
grew  red  and  then  dark  red  and  then,  about  a  quarter  after  2,  it 
went  out  of  sight  altogether.  The  day  got  so  dark  that  you 
couldn't  see  half  a  ship's  length  ahead  of  you.  We  got  our  lamps 
going,  and  put  on  our  oilskins,  ready  for  a  hurricane.  All  of  a 
sudden  there  came  a  sheet  of  lightning  that  showed  up  the  whole 
tumbling  sea  for  miles  and  miles.  We  sort  of  ducked,  expecting 
an  awful  crash  of  thunder,  but  it  didn't  come.  There  was  no  sound 
except  the  big  waves  pounding  against  our  sides.  There  wasn't  a 
breath  of  wind. 

"Well,  sir,  at  that  minute  there  began  the  most  exciting  time 
I've  ever  been  through,  and  I've  been  on  every  sea  on  the  map  for 
twenty-five  years.  Every  second  there'd  be  waves  15  or  20  feet 
high,  belting  us  head-on,  stern-on  and  broadside,  all  at  once.  We 
could  see  them  coming,  for  without  any  stop  at  all  flash  after  flash 
of  lightning  was  blazing  all  about  us. 

"Something  else  we  could  see,  too.  Sharks!  There  were 
hundreds  of  them  on  all  sides,  jumping  up  and  down  in  the  water. 
Some  of  them  jumped  clear  out  of  it.  And  sea  birds  !  A  flock  of 
them,  squawking  and  crying,  made  for  our  rigging  and  perched 
there.  They  seemed  like  they  were  scared  to  death.  But  the 
queerest  part  of  it  all  was  the  water  itself.  It  was  hot — not  so  hot 
that  our  feet  could  not  stand  it  when  it  washed  over  the  deck,  but 
hot  enough  to  make  us  think  that  it  had  been  heated  by  some  kind 
of  a  fire. 

"  Well  that  sort  of  thing  went  on  hour  after  hour.  The  waves, 
the  lightning,  the  hot  water  and  the  sharks,  and  all  the  rest  of  the 
odd  things  happening,  frightened  the  crew  out  of  their  wits.  Some 
of  them  prayed  out  loud — I  guess  the  first  time  they  ever  did  in 
their  lives.     Some  Frenchmen,  aboard  kept   running  around   and 


MONT  PELEE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH  83 

yelling,  'Cest  le  dernier  jour  !'  (This  is  the  last  day.)  We  were 
all  worried.  Even  the  officers  beg-an  to  think  that  the  world  was 
coming  to  an  end.  Mighty  strange  things  happen  on  the  sea,  but 
this  topped  them  all. 

"I  kept  to  the  bridge  all  night.  When  the  first  hour  of  morn- 
ing came  the  storm  was  still  going  on.  We  were  all  pretty  much 
tired  out  by  that  time,  but  there  was  no  such  thing  as  trying  to 
sleep.  The  waves  still  were  batting  us  around  and  we  didn't  know 
whether  we  were  one  mile  or  a  thousand  miles  from  shore.  At  2 
o'clock  in  the  morning  all  the  queer  goings  on  stopped  just  the  way 
they  began — all  of  a  sudden.  We  lay  to  until  daylight ;  then  we 
took  our  reckonings  and  started  off  again.  We  were  about  700 
miles  off  Cape  Henlopen. 

"  No,  sir  ;  you  couldn't  get  me  through  a  thing  like  that  again 
for  $10,000.  None  of  us  was  hurt,  and  the  old  Nordby  herself 
pulled  through  all  right,  but  I'd  sooner  stay  ashore  than  see  waves 
without  wind  and  lightning  without  thunder." 

FIERY    STREAM    CONTAINED    POISONOUS    GASES 

Careful  inspection  showed  that  the  fiery  stream  which  so  com- 
pletely destroyed  St.  Pierre  must  have  been  composed  of  poisonous 
gases,  which  instantly  suftocated  every  one  who  inhaled  them,  and 
of  other  gases  burning  furiously,  for  nearly  all  the  victims  had  their 
hands  covering  their  mouths,  or  were  in  some  other  attitude  show- 
ing that  they  had  perished  from  suffocation. 

It  is  believed  that  Mont  Pelee  threw  off  a  great  gasp  of  some 
exceedingly  heavy  and  noxious  gas,  something  akin  to  firedamp, 
which  settled  upon  the  city  and  rendered  the  inhabitants  insensible. 
This  was  followed  by  the  sheet  of  flame  that  swept  down  the  side 
of  the  mountain.     This  theory  is  sustained  by  the  experience  of  the 


84  MONT  PELRE  AND  ITS  HARVEST  OF  DEATH 

survivors  who  were  taken  from  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  as  they  say 
that  their  first  experience  was  one  of  faintness. 

The  dumb  animals  were  wiser  than  man,  and  early  took  warn- 
ing of  the  storm  of  fire  which  Mont  Pelee  was  storing  up  to  hurl 
upon  the  island.  Even  before  the  mountain  began  to  rumble,  late 
in  April,  live  stock  became  uneasy,  and  at  times  were  almost  uncon- 
trollable. Cattle  lowed  in  the  nigfht.  Dog-s  howled  and  souofht  the 
company  of  their  masters,  and  when  driven  forth  they  gave  every 
evidence  of  fear. 

Wild  animals  disappeared  from  the  vicinity  of  Mont  Pelee. 
Even  the  snakes,  which  at  ordinary  times  are  found  in  great  num- 
bers near  the  volcano,  crawled  away.  Birds  ceased  singing  and 
left  the  trees  that  shaded  the  sides  of  Pelee,  A  great  fear  seemed 
to  be  upon  the  island,  and  though  it  was  shared  by  the  human 
inhabitants,  they  alone  neglected  to  protect  themselves. 

Of  the  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Pierre  only  one  escaped, 
the  others  suffering  the  fate  of  the  city.  The  fortunate  one  was 
Le  Carbet,  on  the  south,  which  escaped  uninjured,  the  flood  of  lava 
stopping  when  within  two  hundred  feet  of  the  town,  Morne  Rouge, 
a  beautiful  summer  resort,  frequented  by  the  people  of  the  island 
during  the  hot  season  as  a  place  of  recreation,  also  escaped.  In 
the  height  of  the  season  several  thousand  people  gathered  there, 
though  at  the  time  of  the  explosion  there  were  but  a  few  hundred. 
Though  located  on  an  elevation  between  the  city  and  the  crater,  it 
was  by  great  good  fortune  saved. 

The  Governor  of  Martinique,  Mr.  Moutet,  whose  precautions 
to  prevent  the  people  fleeing  from  the  city  aided  to  make  the 
work  of  death  complete,  was  himself  among  the  victims  of  the 
burning  mountain.  With  him  in  this  fate  was  Colonel  Dain,  com- 
mander of  the  troops  who  formed  a  cordon  round  the  doomed  city. 


CHAPTER  V. 

An  Island  in  Ruins  and  the  Work  of  Research. 

QUICKLY  as  possible  after  the  terrible  disaster  of  May  8th, 
which  left  the  formerly  thriving  and  active  city  of  St. 
Pierre  a  heap  of  smoking  and  blazing  ruins,  peopled  only 
by  the  dead,  the  work  of  rescue  and  research  began.  The  French 
cable-repair  ship  Pouyer  Qiiertier,  Captain  Thuron,  lost  no  time  in 
starting  on  a  mission  of  rescue,  in  which  it  had  to  pass  through 
clouds  of  burning  cinders,  at  the  risk  of  catching  fire,  in  order  to 
reach  the  terror-stricken  people  ashore.  But  the  captain  succeeded 
in  bringing  to  Fort  de  France  456  people,  mainly  former  residents 
of  the  village  of  Le  Precheur 

This  was  on  Saturday,  the  9th,  Later  this  steamer,  as  the 
result  of  other  daring  trips,  succeeded  in  bringing  many  more  per- 
sons to  Fort  de  France.  On  Sunday  she  rescued  923  persons  and 
piloted  the  French  cruiser  Suchet  and  the  Danish  cruiser  Valkyn^ien, 
which  took  on  board  1,500  persons.  She  distributed  to  the  sufferers 
large  quantities  of  biscuits,  milk,  wine  and  cheese. 

THE    "  SUCHET  "    AT    ST.    PIERRE 

The  French  cruiser  Suchet  vjdiS  the  first  to  approach  the  ruined 
port.  This  was  on  the  evening  of  Thursday,  the  day  of  the  disas- 
ter. During  the  earlier  part  of  that  day  the  heat  was  so  intense 
and  the  volcano  so  active,  that  it  was  impossible  to  venture  near 
the  town.     As  evening  came  on  the   Suchet,  after  a  heroic  battle 

85 


86  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

with  the  heat,  suffocation  and  sulphur  fumes,  made  a  dash  toward 
the  shore,  nearing  the  land  close  enough  to  enable  her  to  take  off 
thirty  survivors  from  the  burning  ships,  most  of  them  being  horri- 
bly burned  and  mutilated.  Nine  of  them  died  while  on  their  way 
to  the  hospital.  St.  Pierre  at  that  time  was  an  absolute,  smoking 
waste,  concealing  30,000  corpses,  whose  rapid  decomposition  would 
necessitate  a  quick  completion  of  their  cremation,  which  was  only 
partially  accomplished  by  the  lava. 

On  the  loth,  the  Suchet  succeeding  in  getting  a  landing  party 
ashore,  the  work  of  research  began.  The  captain  reported  the 
town  to  be  a  mere  heap  of  ruins,  under  which  the  great  multitude 
of  the  victims  of  the  catastrophe  were  buried.  On  Sunday  several 
steamers,  including  the  government  vessel  Rubis,  started  from  Fort 
de  France  for  St.  Pierre,  ten  miles  distant.  The  steamers  had  on 
board  a  government  delegate,  a  number  of  gendarmes,  a  detach- 
ment of  regular  infantry  and  several  priests.  The  vessel  also  car- 
ried a  quantity  of  firewood,  petroleum  and  quicklime,  for  use  in  the 
cremation  of  the  bodies  of  the  victims  of  the  terrible  volcanic  out- 
break of  Thursday. 

IN    THE    RUINED    CITY 

As  the  ships  came  near,  the  sea  seemed  covered  with  the 
wreckage  of  the  vessels  sunk  in  the  harbor,  while  on  shore  only  a 
few  trees,  all  bent  seaward  by  the  force  of  the  volcanic  shower, 
were  left  standing.  When  nearing  St.  Pierre  the  Rubis  met  a  num- 
ber of  tugs  towing  lighters  filled  with  refugees.  The  heat  from  the 
smoking  lava-covered  ruins  at  St.  Pierre  was  suffocating,  and  the 
stench  from  the  corpse-strewn  streets  was  awful.  Only  a  few  walls 
were  erect.  The  hospital  clock  was  found  intact,  with  its  hands 
stopped  at  7.50.     On  all  sides  were  found  portions  of  corpses,  which 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  ^      87 

were  gathered  up  by  the  soldiers  and  gendarmes  and  burned  on  one 
of  the  public  squares.  Not  a  drop  of  water  was  procurable  ashore. 
The  darkness  caused  by  the  clouds  of  volcanic  dust  shrouded  the 
town,  and  continuous  subterranean  rumblings  added  to  the  horror 
of  the  scene. 

The  fort  and  central  quarters  of  the  town  were  razed  to  the 
ground,  and  were  replaced  by  beds  of  hot  cinders.  The  iron-grill- 
work  gate  of  the  government  offices  was  alone  standing.  There 
was  no  trace  of  the  streets.  Huge  heaps  of  smoking  ashes  were  to 
be  seen  on  all  sides.  At  the  landing  place  some  burned  and  ruined 
walls  indicated  the  spot  where  the  custom-house  formerly  stood, 
and  ruins  of  larger  shops  could  be  seen.  In  that  neighborhood 
hundreds  of  dead  bodies  were  found  lying  in  all  kinds  of  attitudes, 
showing  that  the  victims  had  met  death  as  if  by  a  lightning  stroke. 
Every  vestige  of  clothing  was  absent  from  the  charred  bodies,  and 
in  many  cases  the  abdomens  had  been  burst  open  by  the  intense 
heat.  Curiously  enough,  the  features  of  the  dead  were  generally 
calm  and  reposeful,  although  in  some  cases  terrible  fright  and  agony 
were  depicted.  Grim  piles  of  bodies  were  stacked  everywhere, 
showing  that  death  had  stricken  them  while  the  crowds  were  vainly 
seeking  escape  from  the  fiery  deluge.  On  one  spot  a  group  of 
children  were  found  locked  in  each  others'  arms. 

CREMATING    THE    DEAD    IN    HEAPS 

Almost  the  first  thing  done  was  to  make  preparations  for  the 
cremation  of  the  dead.  Fatigue  parties  of  soldiers  built  enormous 
pyres  of  wood  and  branches  of  trees,  upon  which  they  heaped  the 
dead  bodies  by  scores  and  burned  them  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

To  facilitate  the  combustion  and  to  destroy  as  far  as  possible 
the    awful   odor    of    burning    flesh    which    came  from    them,    the 


88  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

impromptu  crematories  were  heavily  soaked  with  coal  tar  and  petro- 
leum. So  repulsive  was  the  work,  owing  to  the  almost  insupport- 
able stench  from  the  already  fast  decomposing  bodies,  that  the  sol- 
diers had  to  be  forced  to  act.  Great  fires  were  kept  going  day  and 
night,  the  glow  of  the  funeral  pyres  being  so  great  that  it  could  be 
seen  from  the  island  of  St.  Lucia. 

As  the  fires  which  consumed  the  city  gradually  burnt  them- 
selves out,  it  became  possible  to  dig  down  into  the  ruins,  thus 
revealing  new  horrors  which  had  hitherto  been  buried  beneath  the 
volcanic  ash  and  the  fallen  walls.  Ashes  and  cinders,  in  places  six 
feet  deep,  hid  the  lines  of  the  streets,  and  covered  thousands  of  de- 
caying corpses. 

The  path  of  the  volcanic  torrent  which  swept  over  St.  Pierre 
was  marked  out  in  a  strange  manner.     The  vicinity  of  the  shore, 
where  vessels  anchored,  had  been  swept  by  a  whirlwind  of  volcanic 
gas,  which  ripped,   tore  and  shattered  everything  in  its  passage, 
but  left  few  traces  of  cinders  behind.     The  tremendous  force  of  the 
volcanic  avalanche  was   shown   by  the  fact   that   walls  which   had 
stood  half  a  century  were  leveled  like  pasteboard.     The  place  was 
as  a  city  swept  by  a  cyclone  of  fire.     The  deluge  must  have  rushed 
upon  the  town  with  resistless  force.     On  the  other  hand,  the  fort, 
centre  and  adjoining  ports  of  St.  Pierre  were  buried  under  a  thick 
bed  of  cinders,  which  had  consumed  everything  beneath  it.     The 
vaults  of  the  bank  of  Martinique,  at  the  head  of  what  had  been  the 
Rue  de  L'Hospital,  were  found  intact.    They  contained  $500,000  in 
specie  and  other  securities,  which  was  sent  to  Fort  de  France  for 
safe  keeping.     An  effort  was  made  also  to  reach  the  vaults  of  the 
government  treasury,  in  the  hope  that  a  large  amount  of  money 
and  other  valuables,  deposited  by  the  principal  merchants  of  the 
city,  might  be  saved,  but  this  treasure  lay  under  a  heap  of  volcanic 
debris  six  to  eight  yards  deep,  and  had  to  be  left  for  later  research. 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  •  89 

Only  three  persons  were  taken  alive  from  the  ruined  city,  and 
of  these  two  quickly  died.  One  of  these  was  the  negress  Fillotte, 
of  whose  rescue  and  subsequent  death  we  have  spoken.  A  second 
was  a  woman  named  Laurent,  who  was  employed  as  a  servant  at 
St.  Pierre  in  the  household  of  M.  Gabriel,  and  who  was  amono- 
those  taken  to  the  hospital  in  Fort  de  France.  In  describing  her 
experiences  she  said  that  on  the  day  of  the  terrible  disaster  she 
heard  a  loud  report,  and  thereupon  fainted.  When  she  regained 
her  senses  a  few  hours  later  she  was  horribly  burned.  Glancing 
around,  she  saw  two  members  of  the  Gabriel  family  still  alive,  but 
they  died  before  assistance  could  reach  them. 

She  lived  for  some  time  after  being  taken  to  the  hospital,  and 
was  conscious  while  under  the  care  of  the  physicians,  but  died  with- 
out being  able  to  impart  any  additional  information. 

In  truth,  only  a  single  human  being  escaped  from  the  city 
after  the  explosion  in  condition  to  survive,  and  he  did  so  only  after 
passing  through  a  living  death.  This  man,  Joseph  Surtout  by 
name,  was  a  negro  murderer,  who  was  locked  in  a  cell  so  far  under 
ground  that  the  gases,  as  well  as  the  flames,  failed  to  reach  him. 
There  he  remained  for  four  days  before  his  cries  were  heard. 

During  these  terrible  days  he  was  without  food  and  water, 
almost  without  air.  He  saw  nothing,  his  cell  being  without  a 
window,  but  he  knew  from  the  noise  and  heat  that  something  ex- 
traordinary had  happened.  He  shouted  for  aid,  and  as  the  days 
passed  he  commended  his  soul  to  God,  expecting  death. 

On  the  fourth  day,  though  he  had  lost  track  of  time,  he  heard 
voices  and  shouted  and  prayed  until  he  had  attracted  the  people.  The 
cell  door  was  broken  open  and  his  tomb  gave  up  its  dead.  As 
soon  as  the  cell  door  was  open  he  dashed  away  like  one  crazed  by 
his  sufferings.     Though  sadly  shaken,  he  was  physically  strong. 


90  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

It  seems  a  singular  fact,  a  remarkable  dispensation  of  Pro- 
vidence shall  we  say,  that  the  only  survivor  from  the  overwhelmed 
city  was  one  condemned  to  death  by  human  law  for  his  crimes,  yet 
saved  alone  of  the  many  thousands  who  made  it  their  home  to  tell 
the  story  of  its  awful  fate.  Where  man  had  proposed,  God  had 
disposed.  Certainly,  after  his  four  days  of  terrible  suffering  it 
would  seem  that  he  should  be  relieved  from  further  penalty  from 
his  his  crime. 

REMARKABLE    INCIDENTS 

Various  strange  and  incomprehensible  incidents  were  observed 
at  St.  Pierre.  The  charred  remains  of  a  woman,  with  a  silk  hand- 
kerchief unburned  and  in  perfect  condition  held  to  her  lips,  were 
found  there.  The  crisp  bodies  of  girls  were  also  found,  the  shoes 
they  wore  being  unhurt.  Side  by  side  with  bodies  burned  to  a 
crisp  were  bodies  but  slightly  burned.  Some  articles  of  clothing  on 
the  dead  were  scarcely  scorched.     Purses  were  found  almost  intact. 

Many  of  the  bodies  were  so  burned  as  to  make  identification 
impossible,  but  in  other  cases  the  opposite  was  the  case,  some 
being  identified  by  the  searching  parties,  which  were  all  under 
military  control  and  their  work  conducted  under  orders,  while  mili- 
tary rule  was  established  in  the  town  to  prevent  vandals  from  work- 
ing and  to  protect  such  property  as  had  not  been  destroyed. 
Pillagers,  indeed,  were  quickly  at  work,  though  orders  had  been 
given  to  shoot  down  any  person  who  was  seen  robbing  a  body. 
Some  of  these  belonged  to  the  inland  district,  but  others  had  come 
from  Fort  de  France  in  boats  in  search  of  bootv  from  the  dead. 

THE    ASSOCIATED    PRESS    STEAMER 

The  Steamer  sent  by  the  Associated  Press  from  Guadeloupe 
reached  St.  Pierre  at  an  early  hour  on  Sunday  morning.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  story  told  by  those  on  board  : — 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  91 

The  island  of  Martinique,  with  its  lofty  hills,  was  hidden 
behind  a  huge  veil  of  violet  or  leaden-colored  haze.  Enormous 
quantities  of  the  wreckage  of  large  and  small  ships  and  houses 
strewed  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Huge  trees,  and  too  often  bodies, 
with  flocks  of  sea  gulls  soaring  above  and  hideous  sharks  fighting 
about  them,  were  floating  here  and  there.  From  behind  the  vol- 
canic veil  came  blasts  of  hot  wind,  mingled  with  others  icy  cold. 
At  Le  Precheur,  five  miles  north  of  St.  Pierre,  men  and  women 
in  canoes,  frantic  to  get  away,  begged  for  a  passage  on  the  steamer. 
The  whole  north  end  of  the  island  was  covered  with  a  silver-grey 
coating  of  ashes  resembling  dirty  snow.  Furious  blasts  of  fire,  ashes 
and  mud  swept  over  the  steamer,  but,  finally,  St.  Pierre  was  reached. 

The  city  of  St.  Pierre  stretched  nearly  two  miles  along  the 
water  front  and  half  a  mile  back  to  a  cliff  at  the  base  of  the  vol- 
cano. The  houses  of  the  richer  French  families  were  built  of 
stone.  The  still  smoking  volcano  towered  above  the  ash-covered 
hills.  The  ruins  were  burning  in  many  places,  and  frightful  odors 
of  burned  flesh  filled  the  air. 

With  great  difficulty  a  landing  was  effected.  Not  one  house 
was  left  intact.  Viscid  heaps  of  mud,  of  brighter  ashes,  or  piles  of 
volcanic  stones  were  seen  on  every  side.  The  streets  could  hardly 
be  traced.  Here  and  there  amid  the  ruins  were  heaps  of  corpses. 
Almost  all  the  faces  were  downward.  In  one  corner  twenty-two 
bodies  of  men,  women  and  children  were  mingled  in  one  awful 
mass,  arms  and  legs  protruding  as  the  hapless  beings  had  fallen 
in  the  last  struggles  of  death's  agony. 

Through  the  middle  of  the  old  Place  Bertin  ran  a  tiny  stream, 
the  remains  of  the  River  Gayave.  Great  trees,  with  roots  upward  and 
scorched  by  fire,  were  strewn  in  every  direction.  Huge  blocks  and 
still  hot  stones  were  scattered  about.     From  under  one  large  stone 


92  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

the  arm  of  a  white  woman  protruded.  Most  notable  was  the  utter 
silence  and  the  overpowering  stench  from  the  thousands  of  dead. 
Careful  inspection  indicated  that  the  fiery  stream  which  so 
completely  destroyed  St.  Pierre  must  have  been  composed  of 
poisonous  gases,  which  instantly  suffocated  every  one  who  inhaled 
them,  and  of  other  gases  burning  furiously,  for  nearly  all  the 
victims  had  their  hands  covering  their  mouths  or  were  in  some 
other  attitude  showing  that  they  had  sought  relief  from  suffocation. 
All  the  bodies  were  carbonized  or  roasted. 

SIGNOR    PARAVICINO    SEEKS    HIS    DAUGHTER. 

Fortunately,  although  Mont  Pelee  continued  in  a  state  of 
eruption  for  many  days,  the  winds  became  southerly  and  the  smoke 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  heavier  matter  thrown  out  was  borne 
away  to  the  northward.  This  somewhat  relieved  the  working  par- 
ties in  St.  Pierre,  and  made  a  more  careful  examination  of  the 
ruins  possible.  A  trip  was  made  through  the  ruined  city  and 
through  the  adjacent  villages  with  the  searching  party  organized  by 
Signor  Paravicino,  the  Italian  Consul  at  Barbados,  whose  daugh- 
ter was  visiting  there,  and  who  perished  in  the  disaster.  There 
was  some  doubt  at  first  concerning  the  identity  of  the  remains,  but 
this  was  set  at  rest  by  relatives  and  friends  identifying  the  clothing. 
This  was  another  example  of  the  curious  effects  of  the  fire  that 
swept  over  the  town,  bodies  being  burned  beyond  all  recognition, 
but  the  clothing  of  flimsy  material  being  little  damaged. 

The  body  of  Signor  Paravicino's  daughter  was  found  near  the 
village  of  Carbet,  a  suburb  of  St.  Pierre.  The  scenes  around  the 
residence  where  the  girl  had  been  visiting  were  worse  than  in  St. 
Pierre  itself.  In  the  latter  place  the  victims  were  mostly  covered 
with  ashes  and  other  debris.      Near  Carbet  were  found  500  bodies 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  <)3 

that  were  terribly  distorted  and  in  an  advanced  state  of  decompo- 
sition. These  bodies  were  counted  around  the  house  in  which 
Signorina  Paravicino  was  found,  and  on  the  adjacent  land.  Nearly 
all  the  dead  were  lying  on  their  faces  on  the  ground.  Those  found 
in  the  ruins  of  dwellings  were  badly  charred. 

INCIDENTS    OF    THE    CATASTROPHE. 

The  body  of  a  woman  was  found  in  a  nearby  stream,  to  which 
she  had  apparently  fled  in  the  hope  of  saving  herself  from  the  fiery 
flood,  but  even  the  waters  were  hot,  and  no  doubt  she  perished 
with  great  suffering  and  agony.  A  large  heap  of  bodies  was  found  in 
one  spot.  They  were  apparently  those  of  servants,  who  had  huddled 
together  in  great  terror  of  the  destruction  which  overtook  them. 
A  large  and  stately  residence  close  by,  but  shielded  partly  by 
a  hill  on  the  St.  Pierre  side,  escaped  almost  untouched.  The  win- 
dows and  inside  blinds  of  this  solitary  house  were  gone,  but  inside 
the  furniture,  papers,  books,  clothing  and  flooring  were  mostly 
unscathed. 

The  only  living  thing  seen  in  this  district  was  an  ox,  thin  as  a 
skeleton.  While  the  body  of  Signorina  Paravicino  was  being  pre- 
pared for  removal  this  animal  stalked  slowly  through  the  wreckage 
to  the  beach,  where  it  drank  sea  water  and  then  went  back  up  the 
hillside.  By  the  roadside,  the  remains  of  a  man  and  horse  were 
passed,  and  others  were  visible  lying  about. 

Further  on  was  seen  the  body  of  a  man  at  the  foot  of  a  statue 
of  the  Virgin,  he  apparently  having  been  killed  while  praying.  A 
large  statue  of  the  Virgin  on  the  hill  above  St.  Pierre  was  hurled 
yards  distant  from  its  base.  This,  together  with  the  fact  that  huge 
trees  were  torn  up  by  their  roots  and  laid  flat,  scarcely  one  being  left 
standing,  and  other  indications,  show  that  the  wave  of   fire   must 


94  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

have  passed  over  this  section  of  the  island  at  hurricane  velocity. 
Every  house  in  St.  Pierre,  not  excepting  those  that  were  most 
solidly  built  of  stone,  was  absolutely  in  ruins.  The  streets  were 
piled  twelve  feet  high  with  debris  and  hundreds  of  dead  bodies  could 
be  seen  in  every  direction. 

The  wrecked  cathedral  was  visited,  or  rather  the  site  where  the 
cathedral  had  stood.  A  portion  of  the  tower  was  standing.  The 
large  bell  lay  in  the  centre  of  the  ruins.  The  greater  part  of  the 
altar  had  been  destroyed,  but  the  golden  chalices  were  still  there, 
damaged,  however,  by  falling  debris.  In  one  large  chalice  were 
seen  the  ashes  of  what  had  been  the  Host.  A  small  chalice  was  full 
of  wafers,  not  one  of  which  was  even  scorched. 

ESCAPE    OF    A    FAMILY 

It  is  known  that  many  persons  who  sought  refuge  in  the  cathe- 
dral perished,  but  their  bodies  were  scarcely  visible,  being  covered 
with  the  debris.  When  other  places  were  visited,  including  the 
sites  of  the  club,  the  bank,  the  bourse,  the  telegraph  office,  and  the 
principal  shops,  everywhere  was  the  same  scene  of  desolation  and 
death,  such  as  eye  of  man  had  never  seen,  unless  it  were  when 
Pompeii  and  its  ruins  were  uncovered  centuries  after  the  eruption. 
At  what  was  formerly  the  police  station,  there  was  a  large  pile 
of  bodies  lying  face  downward  as  if  the  victims  had  fallen  while  in 
the  act  of  running  to  escape  the  fate  impending  over  them. 

Of  the  residents  of  St.  Pierre,  there  seems  to  have  been  only  one 
family  that  fled  from  the  doomed  city  on  the  morning  of  its  destruc- 
tion before  the  explosion.  This  was  that  of  Ferdinand  Clerc,  a 
wealthy  inhabitant  of  the  island,  and  Mayor  of  Trinite,  who  with 
his  wife  and  four  children  succeeded  in  escaping. 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  95 

On  the  morning  of  May  8,  M.  Clerc  noticed  with  alarm  that  the 
rumbhngs  from  Mont  Pelee  were  more  pronounced  than  they  had 
been  up  to  that  time.  The  barometer  in  his  house  also  fluttered 
violently,  and  he  at  once  ordered  his  servants  to  harness  mules  to 
his  carriage  and  prepare  for  flight.  He  advised  all  his  friends  to 
hasten  away  also,  but  his  advice  was  disregarded,  and  he  left  behind 
him  at  his  house  twenty-eight  persons  who  had  gathered  there  at  his 
call,  and  whom  he  advised  to  get   away  as  quickly  as  they  could. 

MR.    PRENTIS  WARNED  IN  VAIN. 

As  Clerc  and  his  family  were  leaving  St.  Pierre  he  saw  Mr. 
Prentis,  the  American  Consul,  standing  with  Mrs.  Prentis  in  front 
of  his  house.  He  called  out  to  Prentis  and  warned  him  to  flee  the 
city  at  once,  but  the  Consul  only  laughed  and  waved  his  hand,  as 
he  answered:  "  Oh,  there  is  no  danger  ;  don't  be  afraid." 

When  Clerc  reached  Morne  Rouge,  distant  from  St.  Pierre 
about  six  miles,  he  looked  back,  and  to  his  horror  saw  a  huge  mass 
of  slate-colored  stones  and  ashes  burst  from  Mont  Pelee  and  tumble 
down  on  St.  Pierre.  This  was  immediately  followed  by  a  great 
wall  of  flame,  which  seemed  to  rise  and  topple  over  on  the  doomed 
town.  The  whole  thing  lasted  not  more  than  two  minutes.  So 
sharply  defined  was  the  wall  of  flame  that  a  bull  caught  on  the 
edge  of  its  track  was  roasted  to  a  crisp  on  one  side  and  not  a  hair 
of  the  animal  was  singed  on  the  other. 

A  gardener  at  the  village  of  Morne  Rouge  saw,  at  the  moment 
of  the  disaster,  seven  luminous  points  on  Mont  Pelee.  He  says  he 
had  the  impression  of  being  violently  drawn  toward  the  volcano  by 
a  powerful  current  of  air.  Then  the  mountain  opened,  according 
to  the  description  of  the  gardener,  and  flung  tornadoes  of  fire  at 
St.  Pierre. 


96  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

At  the  time  of  the  explosion  of  the  mountain — for  the  eruption 
can  be  Hkened  to  nothing  else — a  man  named  Lasserne,  with  a 
companion,  was  entering  St.  Pierre  in  a  small  carriage  drawn  by  a 
pair  of  mules.  The  mules  were  instantly  killed  and  Lasserne  and 
his  friend  were  severely  burned,  but  the  coachman,  who  was  driving 
the  carriage,  and  who  was  between  the  mules  and  the  two  men,  was 
not  burned  or  injured  in  the  least. 

PILLAGERS    IN    THE    RUINS 

As  the  work  of  exploration  of  the  ruined  city  proceeded,  the 
bands  of  pillagers  already  spoken  of  became  bolder  and  more 
numerous.  A  fierce  fight  took  place  between  the  troops  and  the 
looters,  and  little  mercy  was  shown  the  heartless  wretches  when 
caught.  Two  of  them,  who  fled  when  discovered  at  their  work  by 
the  troops,  were  shot,  and  a  considerable  number,  who  were  arrested 
and  taken  to  Fort  de  France,  were  sentenced  to  five  years'  impris- 
onment. There  were  several  women  among  them,  who  received 
lighter  sentences. 

While  coming  to  Fort  de  France,  the  U.  S.  vessel  Potomac 
picked  up  a  boat  containing  five  colored  and  one  white  man  whose 
pockets  were  filled  with  coin  and  jewelry,  the  latter  evidently  strip- 
ped from  the  fingers  of  the  dead.  These  men  were  arrested  and 
turned  over  to  the  commander  of  the  French  cruiser  Suchet  for 
punishment.  An  English  officer,  who  took  some  of  the  sacred 
vessels  from  the  cathedral,  was  suspected  of  an  attempt  at  robbery, 
though  it  proved  that  his  purpose  was  to  preserve  them. 

In  spite  of  the  almost  complete  destruction,   valuables    were 
everywhere    exposed,     rich     temptations     for    thieving     invaders 
Goods   in   the   storehouses  had  been   burned   and   destroyed,    but 
much  that  was  of  value  remained  to  be  preyed  upon  by  thieves.    In 


•       AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  97 

the  search  of  the  ruins  many  safes  of  business  houses  were  found 
open,  some  of  them  probably  forced  open  by  thieves. 

After  pillaging  had  been  put  down  in  St.  Pierre  by  the  vigi- 
lance of  the  guards,  it  made  its  appearance  in  the  rural  districts, 
where  many  houses  had  been  abandoned  by  the  inmates.  A  number 
of  these  were  robbed  and  burned.  The  country  was  not  policed, 
and  all  persons  were  obliged  to  go  armed  as  a  protection  against 
the  bands  of  negro  robbers  who  terrorized  the  district.  Sugar-cane 
fields  were  burned  and  people  openly  assaulted,  the  outlaws  adding 
new  terrors  to  those  which  the  islanders  had  so  recently  experienced. 
Soldiers  were  sent  with  orders  to  take  some  measures  to  put  a 
stop   to  these  villainous  proceedings. 

FLIGHT    OF    THE    COUNTRY    PEOPLE 

While  the  citizens  of  St.  Pierre  were  whelmed  under  indis- 
criminating  death,  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  districts  farther 
removed  from  the  fire-spouting  mountain,  yet  on  whose  homes  and 
fields  thick  dust  and  cinders  were  pouring  down  in  devastating 
layers,  fled  in  terror  from  their  dwellings,  making  their  way  towards 
the  seaport  of  Fort  de   France  as  the  nearest  place  of  safety. 

Hundreds  from  the  seashore  districts  were  lost  in  a  maddened 
flight  from  the  island,  which  they  attempted  in  small  boats.  From 
the  survivors  it  was  learned  that  in  the  insane  panic  that  followed 
the  eruption  the  people  seized  upon  even  the  frailest  boats  to  get 
away.  In  this  way  many  were  lost  who  might  otherwise  have  been 
saved.  Numbers  were  taken  off  by  the  vessels  that  sought  the 
scene  of  disaster,  but  these  were  insufficient  to  rescue  the  multitude 
of  fugitives. 

The  fear  that  the  end  of  the  world  had  come  had  seized  upon 
nearly  all,  and  the  only  thought  of   many  of  them  was  to  get  off 
7 


98  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

the  stricken  island, which  seemed  to  them  to  be  enveloped  in  fire  from 
one  end  to  the  other.  In  the  villages  near  St.  Pierre  visited  by  the 
relief  parties,  the  refugees  pleaded  to  be  taken  to  Fort  de  France. 
They  were  half-clad,  wild-eyed  and  hungry.  The  experiences  of 
the  past  four  days  had  preyed  terribly  upon  them.  Some  of  them 
were  hysterical. 

Thousands  of  refugees  gathered  in  a  few  days  at  Fort  de 
France,  clamoring  for  food,  of  which  the  supply  was  far  too  limited 
for  the  demand.  The  Potomac  brought  a  ton  of  supplies  from  San 
Juan,  partly  made  up  of  codfish  and  flour,  but  days  passed  before 
the  danger  of  famine  was  relieved  by  the  coming  of  food  vessels 
from  more  distant  ports.  Many  deaths  occurred,  and  the  physicians 
who  reached  the  island  found  abundant  work  to  do. 

Every  praise  was  given  United  States  Consul  Ayme,  who 
worked  indefatigably  to  succor  the  survivors.  He  bandaged  the 
limbs  of  the  wounded  and  worked  without  sleep  and  without  food 
until  thoroughly  exhausted  by  his  labors  of  charity  and  bene- 
ficence. 

THE    LURID    WORK    OF    MONT    PELEE 

Meanwhile  in  St.  Pierre  work  in  the  ruins  was  dangerous  and 
was  prosecuted  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Crumbling  walls  were 
a  serious  menace  to  working  parties,  many  urging  that  what  re- 
mained of  the  city  should  be  levelled  with  dynamite.  Even  when 
bodies  were  found  their  identification  was  difficult  or  impossible. 
Inhabitants  of  districts  near  St.  Pierre  were  forced  to  quit  their 
homes  on  account  of  the  odors  from  the  dead  and  gaseous  emana- 
tions from  the  volcanic  craters,  and  the  whole  situation  was 
attended  with  every  feature  of  repulsion  and  peril. 

The  death-dealing  crater,  though  it  had  quieted  somewhat 
after  the  great  eruption,  still  sent  up  ashes  and  flames  which  kept 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  99 

the  people  in  a  state  of  alarm.  After  the  lapse  of  a  week  its  fright- 
ful energy  showed  signs  of  renewal  and  the  terror  of  the  people 
increased.  A  press  correspondent  on  May  16  sent  the  following 
report  : — 

"  I  passed  the  island  of  Martinique  this  morning  in  the  Royal 
Mail  steamship  Ware.  A  new  volcano  had  evidently  broken  out 
to  the  north  of  Mont  Pelee.  We  followed  the  usual  course  from 
Dominica  to  St.  Lucia  and  could  see  the  mountain  sending  up 
dense  black  smoke. 

"  As  we  approached  nearer  to  the  leeward  of  the  volcano  the 
land  became  hidden  by  the  smoke,  but  a  red  glow  shone  through 
the  smoke  down  to  the  water's  edge.  I  could  plainly  see  a  shower 
of  sand  and  ashes  falling,  and  the  smell  of  sulphur  was  very  strong. 
It  became  so  offensive  that  it  made  our  helmsman  and  the  captain 
ill  and  forced  them  to  run  the  steamer  five  miles  out  to  sea  to  avoid 
the  sulphurous  fumes.  When  we  were  well  out  of  the  sulphur- 
laden  atmosphere  we  turned  and  ran  in  toward  St.  Pierre. 

'  Mont  Pelee  had  evidently  been  throwing  out  large  quantities 
of  lava  since  I  saw  the  volcano  last.  I  got  a  good  view  of  St. 
Pierre  and  the  countryside.  I  could  see  where  new  ravines  had 
been  formed,  fissures  opened,  and  old  ones  filled  up.  The  whole 
face  of  the  country  was  changing.  The  scene  of  desolation  was  indes- 
cribable. A  nearer  view  of  St.  Pierre  shows  its  ruins  in  ghastly 
nakedness." 

NEW    VIOLENCE    OF    ERUPTION 

On  the  succeeding  days  the  violence  of  the  eruption  increased, 
and  the  people  of  Morne  Rouge,  who  had  hitherto  escaped  injury, 
fled  for  their  lives,  eight  hundred  of  them  starting  to  walk  through 
the  mountains  to  Fort  de  France,  fifteen  miles  away.  Others  of 
them  sought  St.  Pierre,  where  they  begged  frantically  to  be  taken 


lOO  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

off  by  the  ships  in  the  harbor.  The  panic  even  reached  Fort  de 
France,  on  which  city  thick  showers  of  dust  fell  all  afternoon  and 
night,  while  many  thousands  of  people  rushed  in  a  panic  through 
the  streets,  seeking  to  escape  what  seemed  impending  ruin. 

Ashes  were  spouted  in  great  clouds  from  the  crater  all  day  on 
the  1 8th.  The  explosion  began  on  the  early  morning,  when  a 
black  column  rose  above  Mont  Pelee,  accompanied  by  internal 
rumblines  and  a  tremor  of  the  earth  that  sent  the  sea  back  from 
the  land  in  powerful  waves. 

This  column  was  first  caught  by  a  current  of  air  that  carried  it 
northward.  Then  an  upper  air  current  swept  it  back  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  Thus  it  made  an  immense  and  well-formed  "  T," 
the  base  of  which  rested  in  a  cup  of  flame  on  the  crest  of  the  volcano, 
from  which  it  sprang.  Then  the  wind  veered,  and  a  mantle  of 
darkness  was  swept  westward  across  the  island,  enveloping  Fort  de 
France,  upon  which  volcanic  dust  fell  to  a  depth  of  more  than  an 
inch  and  a  half, 

So  heavy  was  the  dust  that  filled  the  air  that  respiration  be- 
came a  labor,  and  a  fear  of  suffocation  came  upon  the  inhabitants. 
Great  alarm  continued  for  more  than  four  hours,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  cloud  of  ashes  blew  out  to  sea  that  confidence  was  re- 
stored. 

LIKE    A    GIGANTIC    BLAST    FURNACE 

All  night  the  summit  of  Mont  Pelee  had  the  appearance  of  a 
gigantic  blast  furnace,  at  which  great  forces  were  working.  Flames 
shot  skyward  in  sheets  that  at  times  lighted  up  the  entire  island. 
For  a  few  minutes  the  fires  would  drop  back  into  the  mouth  of  the 
crater,  only  to  reissue  with  redoubled  force. 

On  the  19th,  the  American  cruiser  Ci7icinnati,  the  naval  tug 
Potomac^  and  the  British  cruiser  Indefatigable,  left  Fort  de  France 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  loi 

for  St.  Pierre,  in  an  endeavor  to  recover  the  remains  of  Thomas 
T.  Prentis,  the  American  Consul,  and  James  Japp,  the  British  Con- 
sul, whose  bodies  had  been  found  at  their  respective  consulates, 
after  a  long  and  baffling  search.  The  purpose  was  to  take  them 
to  Fort  de  France  for  a  military  funeral. 

On  their  arrival  near  the  ruined  city  they  found  the  volcano  in 
so  frightful  a  state  of  activity  as  to  render  their  enterprise  a  very 
perilous  one.  A  party  was  landed  from  the  Potomac,  but  before 
the  cruiser  could  anchor,  there  came  several  tremendous  explosions. 
Immense  quantities  of  lava  poured  from  the  crater,-  and  clouds  of 
dust  darkened  the  sky.     The  Indefatigable  at  once  put  to  sea. 

With  steam  up  the  Potomac  stood  ready  to  run  as  soon  as  the 
rescue  party  could  get  out  from  shore  and  on  board.  To  the  gen- 
eral din  it  added  its  note  of  alarm.  The  party  of  rescuers  ran 
along  the  beach  and  were  taken  off  by  a  boat  from  the  tug.  They 
were  barely  in  time.  As  the  steamship  got  well  under  way,  another 
flood  of  fire  poured  down  from  Pelee,  and  a  broad  stream  of  lava 
ran  into  the  sea,  while  out  of  the  sky  rained  a  storm  of  rocks  and 
ashes. 

A    DARING    RESCUE    PARTY 

In  spite  of  the  threatening  aspect  of  the  volcano,  it  was  deter- 
mined later  in  the  day  to  make  another  attempt  to  recover  the 
bodies  of  Mr.  Prentis  and  Mr.  Japp.  The  searching  party  was 
divided  into  two  squads.  One,  led  by  Ensign  Miller,  went  to  the 
site  of  the  American  Consulate,  and  soon  had  the  body  of  Mr. 
Prentis  encased  in  a  metallic  and  hermetically  sealed  cofifin.  Six  stal- 
wart fellows  shouldered  the  body  and  started  with  it  for  the  landing. 

In  the  meantime,  another  party,  led  by  Lieutenant  McCor- 
mick,  of  the  Potomac,  had  proceeded  to  the  British  Consulate, 
about  half  a  mile  to  the   northward  of  the  American  Consulate, 


I02  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

Fortunately,  this  was  within  view  of  the  crater  of  Mont  Pelee. 
Lieutenant  McCormick  saw  a  column  of  smoke  and  fire  belch 
from  the  volcano,  down  the  side  of  which  a  stream  of  molten  lava 
flowed.  Directing  his  men  to  make  all  haste  back  to  the  Potomac^ 
the  Lieutenant  turned  aside  to  give  warning  to  the  party  which 
was  carrying  away  the  body  of  the  American  Consul.  "  For  God's 
sake,  boys,  get  to  the  boat  quick  if  you  would  save  your  lives  !  "  he 
gasped.  "  The  volcano  has  exploded,  and  destruction  is  upon  us." 
At  that  instant  there  was  adeafenino-  crash  of  thunder.  It  almost 
seemed  as  though  scores  of  thunderbolts  had  been  forced  into  one. 
As  it  died  away  the  loud  siren  of  the  Indefatigable,  which  was  in 
the  roadstead,  screamed  a  warning.  The  British  cruiser  almost 
immediately  put  out  to  sea  at  top  speed.  Without  cessation  the 
whistle  of  the  Potomac  was  blowing.  There  was  another  rumble, 
and  the  sky  was  filled  with  lightning.  Then  Mont  Pelee  cast  upward 
a  vast  column,  a  mile  or  more  high.  By  a  fortunate  turn  of  the  wind 
the  lives  of  all  in  the  party  were  saved.  The  ashes,  gas,  smoke, 
and  stones,  instead  of  pouring  immediately  upon  them,  were  car- 
ried out  over  the  sea. 

BRAVERY    OF    THE    SAILORS. 

Working  among  the  ruins  were  a  few  Frenchmen,  who  had 
remained  ashore  after  their  fellows  had  fled  in  fright.  These  men 
became  panic-stricken  and  some  of  them  were  in  hysterics.  They 
fell  upon  their  knees,  and  prayed  to  be  saved  from  the  destruction 
which  they  feared  was  about  to  fall  upon  them.  Under  the  circum- 
stances, the  presence  of  mind  and  bravery  of  the  American  sailors 
was  worthy  of  the  greatest  praise.  They  refused  to  put  down  their 
burden. 

As  rapidly  as  possible  the  sailors  made  their  way  over  the 
debris  to  the    shore.     Once  one  of  them  stumbled.      His  fellows 


AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS  103 

waited  until  he  could  recover  himself,  when  all  went  on  together, 
still  bearing  the  coffined  body  of  the  Consul.  Half  a  mile  was 
covered  in  this  manner.  Each  minute  the  sky  darkened.  The  heat 
was  beyond  comprehension.  In  the  air  was  volcanic  dust  that  made 
respiration  hard  labor. 

Finally  the  distance  was  covered,  and  at  the  end  it  was  discov- 
ered that,  after  all,  the  body  would  have  to  be  temporarily  aban- 
doned. Heavy  seas  were  sweeping  shoreward.  It  was  with  great 
difficulty  that  the  party  was  taken  on  board  by  the  Potomac,  but  it 
was  accomplished  safely  and  just  in  time. 

A    MOST    AWE-INSPIRING    SIGHT 

Straight  out  to  sea  for  five  miles  ran  the  Poto^nac,  while  all 
eyes  watched  the  eruption,  the  grandest  and  most  awe-inspiring 
sight  ever  witnessed  by  man.  There  was  an  inner  column  of  fire 
that  reached  perpendicularly  into  the  air.  About  it  was  a  funnel- 
shaped  mass  of  ashes  and  gas,  that  could  be  penetrated  by  the  eye 
only  when  the  flames  burned  brightest. 

Several  new  craters  seemed  to  have  been  formed,  and  from 
them  lava  was  flowing  down  to  the  ocean.  As  the  molten  mass 
reached  the  water  great  clouds  of  steam  were  raised,  and  the  sinister 
hissing  could  be  heard  amid  the  roar  of  the  eruption. 

When  the  Potomac  had  been  put  beyond  the  apparent  danger- 
zone  an  observation  was  taken.  Then  the  ship  was  turned  up  the 
coast  and  was  run  in  under  the  column  of  death.  As  close 
as  she  could  be  sent  without  courting  destruction,  the  Potomac 
went  back  towards  the  stream  of  lava.  All  about  her  the  sea  was 
boiling,  and  the  steam  that  came  up  over  the  sides  was  so  dense  as 
to  make  it  all  but  impossible  to  see  through  it.  Again,  a  turn  was 
made  seaward,  but  as  it  was  seen  that  the  wind  had  shifted  the 


I04  AN  ISLAND  IN  RUINS 

danger  from  St.  Pierre,  she  ran  back  to  the  landing.  A  party  of 
sailors  went  ashore  and  brought  off  the  body.  The  Potomac 
returned  with  it  to  Fort  de  France,  where  all  were  then  in  a  panic. 
Owing  to  the  hasty  retreat  that  was  made  from  the  British 
Consulate,  which  lay  a  mile  back  from  the  shore,  the  body  of  Mr. 
Japp,  which  had  been  encoffined,  was  not  recovered. 

BURIAL    OF    CONSUL    PRENTIS 

Never  before  was  there  such  a  burial  as  was  given  to  the  body 
of  Thomas  T.  Prentis,  the  American  Consul  at  St.  Pierre.  The 
body,  recovered  from  the  ruins  (as  we  have  seen)  at  the  risk  of  the 
lives  of  the  men  who  were  sent  ashore  from  the  Potoifiac,  was  taken 
to  the  cemetery  back  of  Fort  de  France.  There  were  brief  services 
at  the  grave,  led  by  Captain  McClean,  of  the  Cincinnati.  About  the 
erave  stood  officers,  marines  and  sailors  from  the  Cincinnati  and 
the  Potomac.  The  gloom  was  made  more  intense  by  the  knowledge 
held  by  each  one  present  that  his  own  life  was  in  imminent  danger. 

An  ominous  salute  was  fired  by  the  volcano  that  had  brought 
destruction  upon  the  Consul.  While  the  service  was  being  read 
there  was  a  succession  of  deep,  sullen  detonations  that  might  have 
come  from  great  guns  belonging  to  a  mighty  fleet.  As  the  grave 
was  being  filled  a  cloud  of  ashes  came  over  the  city,  and  a  dark- 
ness as  of  night  followed.  The  volcano  had  taken  part  in  the 
services  over  the  body  of  its  victim. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

St.  Vincent  Island  and  Mont  Soufriere  in  1812. 

AMONG  all  the  islands  of  the  Caribbees  St.  Vincent  is  unique 
in  natural  wonders  and  beauties.  Situated  about  ninety-five 
miles  west  of  Barbados,  it  has  a  length  of  eighteen  and  a 
width  of  eleven  miles,  the  whole  mass  being  largely  composed  of  a 
single  peak  which  rises  from  the  ocean's  bed.  From  north  to  south 
volcanic  hills  traverse  its  length,  their  ridges  intersected  by  fertile 
and  beautiful  valleys. 

A  ridge  of  mountains  crosses  the  island,  dividing  it  into  eastern 
and  western  parts.  Kingstown,  the  capital,  a  town  of  8,000  inhabi- 
tants, is  on  the  southward  side  and  extends  alono-  the  shores  of 
a  beautiful  bay,  with  mountains  gradually  rising  behind  it  in  the 
form  of  a  vast  amphitheatre.  Three  streets,  broad  and  lined  with 
good  houses,  run  parallel  to  the  water-front.  There  are  many 
other  intersecting  highways,  some  of  which  lead  back  to  the  foot- 
hills, from  which  good  roads  ascend  the  mountains. 

The  majority  of  the  houses  have  red  tile  roofing  and  a  goodly 
number  of  them  are  of  stone,  one  story  high,  with  thick  walls  after 
the  Spanish  style — the  same  types  of  houses  that  were  in  St.  Pierre 
and  which  are  not  unlike  the  old  Roman  houses  which  in  all  stages 
of  ruin  and  semi-preservation  are  found  in  Pompeii  to  this  day. 

Behind  the  general  group  of  the  houses  of  the  town  loom  the 
Governor's  residence  and  the  buildings  of  the  botanical  gardens 
which  overlook  the  town. 

105 


io6  ST.   VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE 

Kingstown  is  the  trading  centre  and  the  town  of  importance  in 
the  island.  It  contains  the  churches  and  chapels  of  five  Protestant 
denominations  and  a  number  of  excellent  schools.  Away  from 
Kingstown,  and  the  smaller  settlement  of  Georgetown,  the  popula- 
tion is  almost  wholly  rural,  occupying  scattered  villages  which  con- 
sist of  negro  huts  clustering  around  a  few  substantial  buildings  or 
of  cabins  grouped  about  old  plantation  buildings  somewhat  after 
the  ante-bellum  fashion  in  our  own  Southern  States. 

One  of  the  tragedies  of  the  West  Indies  was  the  sinking  of 
old  Port  Royal,  the  resort  of  buccaneers,  in  1692.  The  harbor  of 
Kingstown  is  commonly  supposed  to  cover  the  site  of  the  old  settle- 
ment. There  is  a  tradition  that  a  buoy  for  many  years  was  attached 
to  the  spire  of  a  sunken  church  in  order  to  warn  mariners.  Three 
thousand  persons  perished  in  the  disaster. 

DESCENDANTS    OF    ORIGINAL    INDIAN    POPULATION 

The  northern  portion  of  the  island,  that  desolated  by  the 
recent  volcanic  eruption,  was  inhabited  by  people  living  in  the 
manner  just  described,  the  great  majority  of  them  being  negroes. 
The  total  population  of  the  island  is  about  45,000,  of  whom  30,000 
are  Africans  and  about  3,000  Europeans,  the  remainder  being 
nearly  all  Asiatics.  There  are,  or  rather  were,  a  number  of  Caribs, 
the  descendants  of  the  original  warlike  Indian  population  of  these 
islands.  Many  of  these  live  in  St.  Vincent,  though  there  are  others 
in  Dominico.  As  their  residence  was  in  the  northern  section  of 
the  island,  the  volcano  seems  to  have  completed  the  work  for  the 
Caribs  of  this  island  which  the  Spaniard  long  ago  began.  These 
Caribs  were  really  half-breds,  having  amalgamated  with  the  negroes. 

Many  of  the  blacks  own  land  of  their  own,  raising  arrow  root,  which, 
since  the  decay  of  the  sugar  industry,  is  the  chief  export. 


ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  107 

In  an  island  only  eighteen  miles  long  by  eleven  broad  there  is 
not  room  for  any  distinctly  marked  mountain  range.  The  whole  of 
St.  Vincent,  in  fact,  is  a  fantastic  tumble  of  hills,  culminating  in  the 
volcanic  ridge  which  runs  lengthwise  of  the  oval-shaped  island. 
The  culminating  peak  of  the  great  volcanic  mass,  for  St.  Vincent 
is  nothing  more,  is  Mont  Garou,  of  which  La  Soufriere  is  a 
sort  of  lofty  excrescence  in  the  northwest,  4,048  feet  high,  and 
flanking  the  main  peak  at  some  distance  away. 

It  may  be  said  that  all  the  volcanic  mountains  in  this  part  of 
the  West  Indies  have  what  the  people  call  a  "soufriere" — a 
"  sulphur  pit,"  or  "  sulphur  crater  " — the  name  coming,  as  in  the 
case  of  past  disturbances  of  Mont  Pelee,  from  the  strong  stench  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  which  issues  from  them  when  the  volcano 
becomes  agitated. 

In  18 1 2  it  was  La  Soufriere  adjacent  to  Mont  Garou 
which  broke  loose  on  the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  and  it  is  the  same 
Soufriere  which  again  has  devastated  the  island  and  has  bombarded 
Kingstown  with  rocks,  lava  and  ashes. 

The  old  crater  of  Mont  Garou  has  long  been  extinct,  and, 
like  the  old  crater  of  Mont  Pelee,  near  St.  Pierre,  it  had  far  down 
in  its  depths,  surrounded  by  sheer  cliffs  from  500  to  800  feet  high, 
a  lake.  Glimpses  of  the  lake  of  Mont  Garou  are  difficult  to  get, 
owing  to  the  thick  verdure  growing  about  the  dangerous  edges  of 
the  precipices,  but  those  who  have  seen  it  describe  it  as  a  beautiful 
sheet  of  deep  blue  water. 

THE    APPEARANCF    OF    THE    SOUFRIERE 

Previous  to  the  eruption  of  18 12  the  appearance  of  the 
Soufriere  was  most  interesting.  The  crater  was  half  a  mile  in 
diameter  and    five    hundred  feet  in  depth.     In   its  centre  was  a 


loS  ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE 

conical  hill,  fringed  with  shrubs  and  vines  ;  at  whose  base  were  two 
small  lakes,  one  sulphurous,  the  other  pure  and  tasteless.  This 
lovely  and  beautiful  spot  was  rendered  more  interesting  by  the 
singularly  melodious  notes  of  a  bird,  an  inhabitant  of  these  upper 
solitudes,  and  altogether  unknown  to  the  other  parts  of  the  island 
— hence  called,  or  supposed  to  be,  "  invisible,"  as  it  had  never  been 
seen.  (It  is  of  interest  to  state  that  Frederick  A.  Ober,  in  a  visit 
to  the  island  some  twenty  years  ago,  succeeded  in  obtaining  speci- 
mens of  this  previously  unknown  bird.)  From  the  fissures  of  the 
cone  a  thin  white  smoke  exuded,  occasionally  tinged  with  a  light 
blue  flame.  Evergreens,  flowers  and  aromatic  shrubs  clothed  the 
steep  sides  of  the  crater,  which  made,  as  the  first  indication  of  the 
eruption  on  April  27,  18 12,  a  tremulous  noise  in  the  air.  A  severe 
concussion  of  the  earth  followed,  and  then  a  column  of  thick  black 
smoke  burst  from  the  crater. 

THE    ERUPTION    OF     I  8  I  2 

The  eruption  which  followed  these  premonitory  symptoms  was 
one  of  the  most  terrific  which  had  occurred  in  the  West  Indies  up 
to  that  time.  It  was  the  culminating  event  which  seemed  to  relieve 
a  pressure  within  the  earth's  crust  which  extended  from  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  to  Caracas,  Venezuela,  producing  terrible  effects  in 
the  latter  place.  Here,  thirty-five  days  before  the  volcanic  explo- 
sion, the  ground  was  rent  and  shaken  by  a  frightful  earthquake 
which  hurled  the  city  in  ruins  to  the  ground  and  killed  ten  thousand 
of  its  inhabitants  in  a  moment  of  time. 

La  Soufriere  made  the  first  historic  display  of  its  hidden  powers 
in  1 718,  when  lava  poured  from  its  crater.  A  far  more  violent 
demonstration  of  its  destructive  forces  was  that  above  mentioned.  On 
his  occasion  the  eruption  lasted  for  three  days,  ruining   a  number  of 


ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  109 

• 

the  estates  in  the  vicinity  and  destroying  many  lives.  Myriads  of 
tons  of  ashes,  cinders,  pumice  and  scoriae,  hurled  from  the  crater, 
fell  in  every  section  of  the  island.  Volumes  of  sand  darkened 
the  air,  and  woods,  ridges  and  cane  fields  were  covered  with  light 
gray  ashes,  which  speedily  destroyed  all  vegetation.  The  sun  for 
three  days  seemed  to  be  in  a  total  eclipse,  the  sea  was  discolored 
and  the  ground  bore  a  wintry  appearance  from  the  white  crust  of 
fallen  ashes. 

Carib  natives  who  lived  at  Morne  Rond  fled  from  their  houses 
to  Kingstown.  As  the  third  day  drew  to  a  close  flames  sprang  pyra- 
midically  from  the  crater,  accompanied  by  loud  thunder  and  electric 
flashes,  which  rent  the  column  of  smoke  hanging  over  the  volcano. 
Eruptive  matter  pouring  from  the  northwest  side  plunged  over 
the  cliff,  carrying  down  rocks  and  woods  in  its  course.  The  island 
was  shaken  by  an  earthquake  and  bombarded  with  showers  of  cinders 
and  stones,  which  set  houses  on  fire  and  killed  many  of  the  natives. 

THE    TERRIBLE    EARTHQUAKE    AT    CARACAS 

For  nearly  two  years  before  this  explosion  earthquakes  had 
been  common,  and  sea  and  land  had  been  agitated  from  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  to  the  coasts  of  Venezuela  and  the  mountains  of 
New  Grenada,  and  from  the  Azores  to  the  West  Indies.  On 
March  26,  181 2,  these  culminated  in  the  terrible  tragedy,  spoken  of 
above,  of  which  Humboldt  gives  us  a  vivid  account. 

On  that  day  the  people  of  the  Venezuelan  city  of  Caracas 
were  assembled  in  the  churches,  beneath  a  still  and  blazing  sky, 
when  the  earth  suddenly  heaved  and  shook,  like  a  great  monster 
waking  from  slumber,  and  in  a  single  minute  10,000  people  were 
buried  beneath  the  walls  of  churches  and  houses,  which  tumbled  in 
hideous  ruin  upon  their  heads.     The  same  earthquake  made  itself 


I  lo  ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE 

felt  along  the  whole  line  of  the  Northern  Cordilleras,  working  terri- 
ble destruction,  and  shook  the  earth  as  far  as  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota 
and  Honda,  i8o  leagues  from  Caracas,  This  was  a  preliminary 
symptom  of  the  internal  disorder  of  the  earth. 

While  the  wretched  inhabitants  of  Caracas  who  had  e-'caped 
the  earthquake  were  dying  of  fever  and  starvation,  and  seeking 
among  villages  and  farms  places  of  safety  from  the  renewed  earth- 
quake shocks,  the  almost  forgotten  volcano  of  St.  Vincent  was 
muttering  in  suppressed  wrath.  For  twelve  months  it  had  given 
warning,  by  frequent  shocks  of  the  earth,  that  it  was  making  ready 
to  play  its  part  in  the  great  subterranean  battle.  On  the  27th  of 
April  its  deep-hidden  powers  broke  their  bonds,  and  the  conflict 
between  rock  and  fire  began. 

THE    MOUNTAIN    STONES    A    HERD-BOY 

The  first  intimation  of  the  outbreak  was  rather  amusing  than 
alarming.  A  negro  boy  was  herding  cattle  on  the  mountain  side. 
A  stone  fell  near  him.  Another  followed.  He  fancied  that  some 
other  boys  were  pelting  him  from  the  cliff  above,  and  began  throw- 
ing stones  upward  at  his  fancied  concealed  tormentors.  But  the 
stones  fell  thicker,  among  them  some  too  large  to  be  thrown  by 
any  human  hand.  Only  then  did  the  little  fellow  awake  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  not  a  boy  like  himself,  but  the  mighty  mountain,  that 
was  flinging  these  stones  at  him.  He  looked  up  and  saw  that  the 
black  column  which  was  rising  from  the  crater's  mouth  was  no 
longer  harmless  vapor,  but  dust,  ashes  and  stones.  Leaving  the 
cattle  to  their  fate,  he  fled  for  his  life,  while  the  mighty  cannon  of 
the  Titans  roared  behind  him  as  he  ran.  For  three  days  and  nights 
this  continued  ;  then,  on  the  30th,  a  stream  of  lava  poured  over  the 
crater's  rim  and  rushed  downward,  reaching  the  sea  in  four  hours, 
and  the  great  eruption  was  at  an  end. 


ST.   VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  m 

On  the  same  day,  says  Humboldt,  at  a  distance  of  more  than 
200  leagues,  "the  inhabitants  not  only  of  Caracas,  but  of  Calabozo, 
situated  in  the  midst  of  the  Lianos,  over  a  space  of  4,000  square 
leagues,  were  terrified  by  a  subterranean  noise  which  resembled 
frequent  discharges  of  the  heaviest  cannon.  It  was  accompanied 
by  no  shock,  and,  what  is  very  remarkable,  was  as  loud  on  the  coast 
as  at  eighty  leagues'  distance  inland,  and  at  Caracas,  as  well  as  at 
Calabozo,  preparations  were  made  to  put  the  place  in  defence 
against  an  enemy  who  seemed  to  be  advancing  with  heavy 
artillery." 

It  was  no  enemy  that  man  could  deal  with.  Fortunately,  it 
confined  its  assault  to  deep  noises,  and  desisted  from  earthquake 
shocks.  Similar  noises  were  heard  in  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe, 
and  here  also  without  shocks.  The  internal  thunder  was  the  signal 
of  what  was  taking  place  on  St.  Vincent.  With  this  last  warning 
sound  the  trouble,  which  had  lasted  so  long,  was  at  an  end.  The 
earthquakes  which  for  two  years  had  shaken  a  sheet  of  the  earth's 
surface  larger  than  half  Europe,  were  stilled  by  the  eruption  of  St. 
Vincent's  volcanic  peak. 

BARBADOS  COVERED  WITH  ASHES 

Northeast  of  the  original  crater  of  the  Soufriere  a  new  one  was 
formed  which  was  a  half  mile  in  diameter  and  five  hundred  feet 
deep.  The  old  crater  was  in  time  transformed  into  a  beautiful 
blue  lake,  as  above  stated,  walled  in  by  ragged  cliffs  to  a  height  of 
eight  hundred  feet. 

It  was  looked  upon  as  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  although 
the  air  was  perfectly  calm  during  the  eruption,  Barbados,  which  is 
ninety-five  miles  to  the  windward,  was  covered  inches  deep  with 
ashes.    The  inhabitants  there  and  on  other  neighboring  islands  were 


112  ST.   VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE 

terrified  by  the  darkness,  which  continued  for  four  hours  and  a 
half.  Troops  were  called  under  arms,  the  supposition  from  the  con- 
tinued noise  being  that  hostile  fleets  were  in  an  engagement. 

The  movement  of  the  ashes  to  windward,  as  just  stated,  was 
viewed  as  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  and  is  cited  by  Elise  Reclus, 
in  "  The  Ocean,"  to  show  the  force  of  different  aerial  currents  ; 
"On  the  first  day  of  May,  1 8 1 2,  when  the  northeast  trade-wind  was  in 
all  its  force,  enormous  quantities  of  ashes  obscured  the  atmosphere 
above  the  Island  of  Barbados,  and  covered  the  ground  with  a  thick 
layer.  One  would  have  supposed  that  they  came  from  the  volca- 
noes of  the  Azores,  which  were  to  the  northeast ;  nevertheless  they 
were  cast  up  by  the  crater  in  St.  Vincent,  one  hundred  miles  to  the 
west.  It  is  therefore  certain  that  the  debris  had  been  hurled,  by 
the  force  of  the  eruption,  above  the  moving  sheet  of  the  trade- 
winds  into  an  aerial  river  proceeding  in  a  contrary  direction."  For 
this  it  must  have  been  hurled  miles  high  into  the  air,  till  caught  by 
the  current  of  the  anti-trade  winds. 

KINGSLEY's    visit    to    saint    VINCENT 

From  Charles  Kingsley's  "At  Last"  we  extract,  from  the  ac- 
count of  the  visit  of  the  author  to  St.  Vincent,  some  interesting 
matter  concerning  the  181 2  eruption  and  its  effect  on  the  moun- 
tain ;  also  its  influence  upon  distant  Barbados,  as  just  stated, 

"  The  strangest  fact  about  this  eruption  was,  that  the  mountain 
did  not  make  use  of  its  old  crater.  The  original  vent  must  have 
become  so  jammed  and  consolidated,  in  the  few  years  between  1785 
and  1 81 2,  that  it  could  not  be  reopened,  even  by  a  steam  force  the 
vastness  of  which  may  be  guessed  at  from  the  vastness  of  the  area 
which  it  had  shaken  for  two  years.  So,  when  the  eruption  was 
over,  it  was  found  that  the  old  crater-lake,  incredible   as  it  may 


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A  STREET  IN  ST.  PIERRE. 

rnn^r:<,hf    T    IVT  T     5*"°^'°° '^  ^'"^  ^^"^^"'"SS,  and  the  Hilly  Nature  of  the  Town, 

(copyright,  J  .  Murray  Jordan. 


ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  113 

seem,  remained  undisturbed,  so  far  as  has  been  ascertained  ;  but  close 
to  it,  and  separated  only  by  a  knife-edge  of  rock  some  700  feet  in 
height,  and  so  narrow  that,  as  I  was  assured  by  one  who  had  seen 
it,  it  is  dangerous  to  crawl  along  it,  a  second  crater,  nearly  as  large 
as  the  first,  had  been  blasted  out,  the  bottom  of  which,  in  like 
manner,  was  afterward  filled  with  water. 

"  I  regretted  much  that  I  could  not  visit  it.  Three  points  I 
longed  to  ascertain  carefully — the  relative  heights  of  the  water  in 
the  two  craters ;  the  height  and  nature  of  the  spot  where  the  lava 
stream  issued  ;  and,  lastly,  if  possible,  the  actual  causes  of  the 
locally  famous  Rabacca,  or  '  Dry  River,'  one  of  the  largest  streams 
in  the  island,  which  was  swallowed  up  during  the  eruption,  at  a 
short  distance  from  its  source,  leaving  its  bed  an  arid  gully  to  this 
day.  But  it  could  not  be,  and  I  owe  what- little  I  know  of  the  sum- 
mit of  the  soufriere  principally  to  a  most  intelligent  and  gentleman- 
like young  Wesleyan  minister,  whose  name  has  escaped  me.  He 
described  vividly,  as  we  stood  together  on  the  deck,  looking  up  at 
the  volcano,  the  awful  beauty  of  the  twin  lakes,  and  of  the  clouds 
which,  for  months  together,  whirl  in  and  out  of  the  cups  in  fantas- 
tic shapes  before  the  eddies  of  the  trade  wind. 

BLACK    SUNDAY    AT    BARBADOS 

"  The  day  after  the  explosion,  '  Black  Sunday,'  gave  a  proof  of, 
though  no  nieasure  of,  the  enormous  force  which  had  been  ex- 
erted. Eighty  miles  to  windward  lies  Barbados.  All  Saturday  a 
heavy  cannonading  had  been  heard  to  the  eastward.  The  English 
and  French  fleets  were  surely  engaged.  The  soldiers  were  called 
out  ;  the  batteries  manned  ;  but  the  cannonade  died  away,  and  all 
went  to  bed  in  wonder.  On  the  ist  of  May  the  clocks  struck  six, 
but  the  sun  did  not,  as  usual  in  the  tropics,  answer  to  the  call. 

8 


114  'ST.   VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE 

The  darkness  was  still  intense,  and  grew  more  intense  as  the  morn- 
ing wore  on.  A  slow  and  silent  rain  of  impalpable  dust  was  falling- 
over  the  whole  island.  The  negroes  rushed  shrieking  into  the 
streets.  Surely  the  last  day  was  come.  The  white  folk  caught 
(and  little  blame  to  them)  the  panic,  and  some  began  to  pray  who 
had  not  prayed  for  years.  The  pious  and  the  educated  (and  there 
were  plenty  of  both  in  Barbados)  were  not  proof  against  the  infec- 
tion. Old  letters  describe  the  scene  in  the  churches  that  morninor 
as  hideous — prayers,  sobs,  and  cries,  in  Stygian  darkness,  from 
trembling  crowds.  And  still  the  darkness  continued  and  the  dust 
fell. 

INCIDENTS    AT    BARBADOS 

"  I  have  a  letter  written  by  one  long  since  dead,  who  had  at 
least  powers  of  description  of  no  common  order,  telling  how,  when 
he  tried  to  go  out  of  his  house  upon  the  east  coast,  he  could  not 
find  the  trees  on  his  own  lawn  save  by  feeling  for  their  stems.  He 
stood  amazed  not  only  in  utter  darkness,  but  in  utter  silence  ;  for 
the  trade-wind  had  fallen  dead,  the  everlasting  roar  of  the  surf  was 
gone,  and  the  only  noise  was  the  crashing  of  branches,  snapped  by 
the  weight  of  the  clammy  dust.  He  went  in  again,  and  waited. 
About  one  o'clock  the  veil  began  to  lift  ;  a  lurid  sunlight  stared  in 
from  the  horizon,  but  all  was  black  overhead.  Gradually  the  dust 
drifted  away;  the  island  saw  the  sun  once  more,  and  saw  itself 
inches  deep  in  black,  and  in  this  case  fertilizing,  dust.  The  trade- 
wind  blew  suddenly  once  more  out  of  the  clear  east,  and  the  surf 
roared  again  along  the  shore. 

"  Meanwhile  a  heavy  earthquake-wave  had  struck  part  at  least 
of  the  shores  of  Barbados.  The  ofentleman  on  the  east  coast,  ^o- 
ing  out,  found  traces  of  the  sea,  and  boats  and  logs  washed  up  some 


ST.    VINCENT  AND  MONT  SOUFRIERE  115 

ten   to    twenty    feet    above    high-tide    mark ;    a   convulsion   which 
seemed  to  have  gone  unmarked  during  the  general  dismay. 

"One  man  at  least,  an  old  friend  of  John  Hunter,  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  and  others  their  compeers,  was  above  the  dismay,  and  the 
superstitious  panic  which  accompanied  it.  Finding  it  still  dark 
when  he  rose  to  dress,  he  opened  (so  the  story  used  to  run)  his 
window  ;  found  it  stick,  and  felt  upon  the  sill  a  coat  of  soft  powder. 
'The  volcano  in  St.  Vincent  has  broken  out  at  last,'  said  the  wise 
man,  '  and  this  is  the  dust  of  it.'  So  he  quieted  his  household  and 
his  negroes,  lighted  his  candles,  and  went  to  his  scientific  books,  in 
that  delight,  mingled  with  an  awe  not  the  less  deep,  because  it  is 
rational  and  self-possessed,  with  which  he,  like  the  other  men  of 
science,  looked  at  the  wonders  of  this  wondrous  world." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Desolation  of  St.  Vincent. 

WHILE  the  great  catastrophe  which  occurred  on  the  Island 
of  Martinique  will  be  known  from  the  name  and  horrors 
of  St.  Pierre  or  Mt.  Pelee,  yet  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent 
also  passed  through  a  veritable  baptism  of  fire,  and  the  results  were 
only  less  terrible  than  those  that  followed  the  eruption  of  Mont 
Pelee,  destroying  the  town  of  St.  Pierre  and  its  environs  with  their 
30,000  inhabitants. 

Mont  Soufriere  broke  into  activity  simultaneously  with  Mont 
Pelee  and  many  of  the  people  were  destroyed.  A  line  drawn  from  Cha- 
teau Belaire  to  Geororetown  would  divide  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent 
into  halves.  Few  human  beings  remained  alive  north  of  it.  Many 
bodies  were  recovered,  and  it  is  known  that  many  hundreds  lay 
buried  under  the  ashes  that  fell  over  the  whole  island. 

It  is  estimated  that  nearly  2000  were  sacrificed  by  the  eruption. 
This  includes  most  of  the  Carib  Indians,  which  means  the 
practical  extinction  of  the  race  that  was  found  on  the  island  by 
Columbus  four  centuries  ago.  An  old  Indian  prophecy  that  the 
Caribs  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  fire  god,  which  they  worshipped, 
has  thus  been  fulfilled.  Of  the  Caribs  a  small  number  remain  on 
the  Islands  of  St.  Lucia  and  Dominica. 

From  St.  Lucia  the    eruption  of  Mont  Soufriere  was  visible 

during  the  night  of  May  7.     The   following  night  the  steamship 

Wear,  of  the  Royal   Mail  service,  attempting  to  force  her  way  to 
116 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT 


117 


Kingstown,  ran  into  a  floating  bank  of  ashes.  For  three  hours 
the  ship  was  practically  helpless  in  a  cloud  of  smoke  and  sulphurous 
ofas  denser  than  that  which  floated  down  from  Mont  Pelee. 

When  Kingstown  was  finally  reached  at  daybreak,  it  was  found 
panic  stricken.  The  streets  were  covered  two  inches  deep  with 
ashes  and  stones  that  had  fallen  durincr  the  nip-ht.      Kincrstown  is 

fifteen  miles  from  the  crater 
which  ejected  the  stones,  yet 
the  rain  of  missiles  was  almost 
incessant  for  three  days.  From 
Chateau  Belaire  word  came 
that  the  distress  there  was 
Cfreat.  A  call  had  been  sent 
for  a  clergyman,  and  one  was 
taken  up  by  the  Wear.  Down 
the  sides  of  Mont  Soufriere 
were  flowing  hundreds  of 
streams  of  lava,  which,  uniting 
and  separating,  formed  a  net- 
work from  which  there  was  no 
possible  escape  for  any  living 
thing  caught  within  its  grasp. 

THE    LAVA    STREAMS 

By  the  explosion  of  181 2 
a  river  that  had  existed  ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  island  was 
dried  up.  Down  Its  channel  for  days  after  the  eruption  there 
flowed  a  swift  stream  of  molten  lava,  which  glistened  like  liquid 
silver,  and  which  flowed  into  the  sea  within  100  yards  of  George- 
town. As  the  water  and  the  lava  met,  a  great  cloud  of  steam 
arose,  and  the  hissing  could  be  heard  for  miles. 


Cr^ftm^^ 


c/iLii^^a/j 


lis  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT 

From  a  distance  dozens  of  craters  could  be  seen,  now  opening 
and  again  closing,  near  the  crest  of  Mont  Soufriere.  The  force  of 
the  eruption  seemed  to  be  lessened,  but  the  danger  continued  still 
great.  Many  searching  parties  were  immediately  sent  out.  Seven 
estates  were  found  to  be  ruined  beyond  hope  of  repair.  Two 
chapels  were  buried  under  a  stream  of  lava.  Many  houses  were 
covered  under  masses  of  ashes  and  lava,  and  there  was  hardly  a 
spot  in  the  island  that  was  not  under  from  two  inches  to  ten  feet 
of  ashes. 

The  British  steamer  Cennet  on  Sunday  ran  through  five  miles 
of  smoke  that  was  so  dense  that  the  crew  were  almost  suffocated. 
F'or  more  than  an  hour  the  ship  had  to  be  left  to  its  own  guidance. 
Mont  Soufriere,  though  not  so  active  as  it  was  immediately 
after  the  first  eruption,  was  still  so  threatening  as  to  terrify  the 
inhabitants.  Smoke  and  flames  continued  to  belch  from  the  crater, 
over  which  there  was  an  incessant  play  of  lightning,  forking  out  from 
the  column,  that  reached  so  far  up  into  the  sky  that  the  eye  could 
not  perceive  its  crest. 

It  was  more  than  two  weeks  previous  to  May  lo,  that  Mont 
Soufriere  first  gave  warning  that  it  was  about  to  give  a  display  of 
fire-works  as  majestic  as  had  been  seen  by  man  during  the  last 
thousand  years.  Mont  Soufriere  can  be  seen  fully  fifty  miles  at 
sea  on  a  clear  day.  For  ninety  years  the  old  volcano  had  been 
somnolent.  On  rare  occasions  it  had  grumbled  internally,  but  it 
had  been  regarded  as  harmless  by  the  Indians,  who  told  of  the 
eruptions  which  ceased  long  ago,  and  which  they  had  carried 
in  their  traditions.  After  the  eruption  of  1812  the  old  crater 
closed,  and  water,  filling  it,  formed  a  beautiful  blue  lake. 

For  many  days  preceeding  the  eruption  Soufriere  labored 
inwardly  in  a  manner  such  as  was  new  to  the  present  generation. 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT  119 

Then,  on  May  5,  the  crater  lake  became  greatly  disturbed.  It  began 
to  boil  and  bubble  like  a  great  cauldron.  Steam  arose  from  it  in 
immense  clouds.  The  rumblinof  beneath  the  mountain  redoubled 
in  force,  and  at  2  o'clock  that  afternoon  Soufriere  trembled  as  though 
it  was  in  the  throes  of  a  terrible  agony.  Then  came  a  series  of 
severe  earthquakes  that  shook  the  entire  island. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    OUTBREAK    OF    MAY    7,     I902. 

That  night  sulphuric  flames  played  about  the  summit  of  the 
volcano,  giving  it  a  weird  and  terrible  appearance.  Steam  contin- 
ued to  rise  in  clouds,  and  the  thunders  of  the  skies  were  joined 
with  those  that  came  from  the  bowels  of  the  Soufriere.  t\W.  dur- 
ing Wednesday  the  splendid  phenomenon  continued,  giving  those 
who  lived  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  volcano  ample  time  to  make 
their  escape.  All  seem  to  have  been  hypnotized,  and  of  the  num- 
bers who  were  there  only  a  few  hundred  went  away. 

It  was  noon  on  Wednesday,  May  7,  1902,  that  Mont  Sou- 
friere suddenly  opened,  sending  six  separate  streams  of  lava  pour- 
ing and  boiling  down  its  sides.  Death  was  everywhere,  and  in 
its  most  terrible  forms.  Lightning  came  from  the  sky,  killing  many 
who  had  escaped  the  molten  streams  that  poured  into  the  valleys. 

For  this  great  tragedy  the  settings  were  wonderful.  Soufriere 
literally  rocked  in  its  agony.  From  its  summit  a  majestic  column 
of  smoke,  inky  black,  reached  skyward.  The  crraters  were  vomit- 
ing incandescent  matter  that  gave  forth  prismatic  lights  as  it  rolled 
away  toward  the  sea.  Great  waves  of  fire  seemed  to  hedge  about  the 
mountain  top.  Such  thunder  as  has  seldom  been  heard  by  man 
cracked  and  rolled  through  the  heavens.  From  the  earth  came  tre- 
mendous detonations.  These  joined  with  the  thunder,  all  merging 
in  an  incessant  roar  that  added  to  the  panic  of  fleeing  inhabitants. 


120  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.   VINCENT 

This  lasted  through  the  night,  and  the  day  and  night  follow- 
ing. On  Thursday  morning  a  huge  column,  so  black  that  it  had 
the  appearance  of  ebony,  arose  to  an  estimated  height  of  eight 
miles  from  the  top  of  the  volcano. 

Ashes  and  rock,  as  well  as  lava,  were  carried  skyward  in  this 
column  to  deluge  the  island  and  the  ocean  for  miles  around.  Grad- 
ually the  column  mushroomed  at  the  top  and  spread  out  into  dense 
clouds,  that  descended  to  bring  night  at  noontime.  The  atmos- 
phere was  so  laden  with  sulphurous  gas  that  life  was  made  almost 
impossible.  Hundreds  of  those  nearest  to  Soufriere  were  suffocated 
by  this  gas  before  they  were  touched  by  the  burning  lava. 

A    TERRIBLE    NIGHT 

Many  expected  that  the  entire  island  would  be  destroyed,  and 
the  night  of  Thursday  was  given  up  to  prayers.  All  that  night  the 
darkness  v/as  beyond  description,  save  when  everything  was  made 
light  as  broad  day  by  the  lightning  which  forked  out  from  the 
volcano.  The  earth  quaked  incessantly,  the  mountains  shook,  stones, 
lava  and  great  quantities  of  ashes  never  ceased  to  fall.  So  terrible 
were  the  thunders  that  it  seemed  to  the  terrified  that  the  universe 
was  being  rent  to  pieces  and  that  the  last  day  had  come. 

Friday  brought  a  slight  respite.  Soufriere  became  less  agi- 
tated. The  lava  streams  did  not  decrease,  but  the  showers  of  rocks 
stopped  for  a  time.  Then  those  of  stout  heart  ventured  out  to  take 
stock  of  the  wonderful  ruin  that  had  been  wrougfht. 

All  areas  of  cultivation  were  found  to  be  destroyed,  buried 
under  banks  of  volcanic  matter.  Wallibou  and  Richmond  planta- 
tions and  villafies  on  the  leeward  coast  were  wrecked.  Wallibou 
was  partly  under  water,  which  had  been  swept  in  from  the  sea  by  a 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT  121 

tidal  wave.     Five  other  plantations  were  gone  and   every  vestige 
of  human  life  had  vanished. 

The  Carib  Indians  had  made  that  portion  of  the  island  lying 
at  the  base  of  Soufriere  their  country.  That  entire  district  was  a 
smoking,  incinerated  ruin.  Ashes  were  everywhere,  being  in  no 
place  less  than  two  feet  deep,  and  in  some  places  lava  had  rolled 
over  the  deep  banks  of  ashes.  Every  Indian  seemed  to  have  disap- 
peared, there  being  no  survivors  known  until  some  time  afterward. 
All  vegetation  was  destroyed.  Not  a  sprig  of  green  was  to  be  seen 
on  the  island.  Live  stock  had  died.  Houses  had  vanished  from 
their  sites.      Rivers  were  dry  and  their  beds  ran  lava. 

ON    EVERY    HAND    COMPLETE    DESOLATION 


\ 


Everywhere  north  of  Chateau  Belaire  were  dead  bodies,  some 
half  buried,  others  showing  that  they  had  been  stricken  down  by 
the  lightning.  A  few  seemed  to  have  been  dipped  in  lava,  which 
took  form  from  them.  Decomposition  seemed  to  be  almost  im- 
mediate. The  dead  were  buried  or  burned  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
but  the  conditions  were  such  that  pestilence  could  hardly  be  averted. 

Kingstown  was  safe,  but  Georgetown  suffered  terribly.  In  the 
hospitals  there  hundreds  of  sufferers  were  being  cared  for,  with  lit- 
tle chance  that  any  of  them  would  recover.  There  followed  a  peril  of 
famine.  Had  not  supplies  been  quickly  received,  hundreds  would 
have  starved.  When  the  violent  eruption  had  ceased,  the  air  was 
filled  with  volcanic  dust  and  ashes,  creating  an  intense  thirst  and 
such  suffering  as  can  hardly  be  imagined  by  those  not  on  the  island. 

The  steamer  Wear,  sent  by  government  officials  from  St.  Lucia 
on  the  evening  of  the  8th,  to  visit  the  island,  reported  that  terrible 
flames  were  visible  during  the  entire  journey.  At  midnight  it  was 
seen  that  a  volcano  was  in  eruption,  about  four  miles  away. 


122  THE  DESOLATION  OE  ST.    VINCENT 

The  Wear  ran  into  heavy  showers  of  gray  ashes,  and  the  peo- 
ple on  board  were  almost  suffocated.  The  atmosphere  was  so 
dense  that  nothing-  could  be  seen.  The  steamer  put  about  and 
steamed  to  the  south  for  two  hours  before  she  was  clear  of  the 
showers  of  ashes.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  she  put  back 
toward  the  island  and  encountered  more  ashes  and  was  again  com- 
pelled to  put  off.  She  arrived  at  Kingstown  at  about  five  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  9th. 

It  was  then  seen  that  the  volcano  was  in  constant  eruption, 
and  there  was  a  tremendous  roar.  Forked  lightning  played 
incessantly  over  the  disturbed  section,  the  flashes  averaging 
from  sixty  to  one  hundred  a  minute.  Kingstown,  which  is 
twelve  miles  from  the  volcano,  had  been  covered  with  three  inches 
of  ashes  and  showers  of  stones  on  Thursday,  and  the  glow  from 
the  eruption  was  visible  forty  miles  away. 

The  terrific  force  of  the  eruption  may  be  illustrated  by  one 
incident.  Ashes  in  great  quantity  fell  on  the  deck  of  the  British 
steamship  Coya,  Captain  Eton,  when  she  was  250  miles  distant  from 
the  island. 

RIVERS    OF    LAVA. 

When  the  Wear  was  opposite  Belaire  there  was  a  grand  view 
of  the  west  side  of  the  crater.  Rivers  of  lava  were  coming  down 
the  mountain  sides  in  every  direction  and  flowing  into  the  sea. 
The  huge  crater  was  covered  with  smoke,  and  there  was  an  inces- 
sant eruption.  Great  quantities  of  ashes  were  blown  into  the  air 
and  were  fallinor  toward  the  sea,    A  new  lane  was  observed  runningr 

o  fc> 

out  toward  the  sea  for  half  a  mile.  It  was  of  a  brownish  color,  and 
was  probably  lava  which  had  been  cooled  by  the  sea  water.  It  was 
impossible  to  get  close  to  the  town. 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT  123 

The  sea  was  littered  with  trees  and  other  wreckage.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  proceed  to  St.  Lucia  through  the  falHng  ashes,  but  it 
was  found  impossible.  It  meant  suffocation  to  try  it.  A  run  out- 
ward was  made,  but  the  vessel  entered  the  belt  miles  out  at  sea, 
with  the  same  result.  On  the  horizon  there  was  nothing  to  be  seen 
but  falling  ashes  and  other  material,  which  was  piled  up  like  an 
enormous  wall.      Inside  the  belt  all  was  dark. 

Putting  back,  the  Wear  steamed  around  the  island  to  the  wind- 
ward. Opposite  Georgetown  she  encountered  a  gale  of  wind  car- 
rying smoke  and  debris.  To  the  north  the  entire  territory  of  the 
disturbed  district  was  clearly  visible.  Besides  the  large  crater, 
numerous  small  craters  were  in  eruption,  and  many  streams  of  lava 
v/ere  flowing  seaward,  one  of  them  half  a  mile  wide. 

On  the  13th  it  was  reported  from  Castries,  St.  Lucia,  that  the 
volcano  was  still  in  destructive  eruption.  A  terrific  cannonade 
seemed  to  be  going  on  a  hundred  miles  away.  The  reports  were 
followed  by  columns  of  smoke,  rising  miles  in  the  air.  Immense 
balls  of  colored  fire  also  issued  from  the  crater.  Lightning  played 
fiercely  in  the  upper  sky,  and  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  island 
was  one  mass  of  spreading  flame.  It  was  impossible  to  reach  the 
burning  district  by  land  or  sea,  and  there  were  no  means  of  estima- 
ting the  destruction  wrought  to  life  and  property.  Kingstown  was 
safe,  though  showers  of  ashes  and  pebbles  continually  fell  on  the 
town.     The  volcano  itself  was  invisible. 

EFFECTS    OF    THE    ERUTTION 

No  person  at  that  time  was  able  to  approach  within  eight  miles 
of  the  new  crater  of  the  Soufriere  volcano,  but,  judging  from  what 
could  be  seen  from  a  considerable  distance,  the  old  lake  at  the 
summit  of  the  mountain  had  disappeared.      The  numerous  fissures 


124  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST    VINCENT 

in  the  mountain  side  continued  to  throw  out  vapor,  and  the  subter- 
ranean murmurings  and  tremblings  indicated  continued  unrest. 
During  the  afternoon  of  Monday  a  dense  volume  of  steam  and 
smoke  rose  from  the  volcano  and  the  whole  island  was  covered 
by  a  peculiar  mist,  while  the  inhalation  of  noxious  vapors  made 
breathing  very  difficult  and  added  to  the  distress  of  the  people. 

Physical  changes  resulted  from  the  eruptions,  including  several 
fissures  on  La  Soufriere  and  an  inlet  of  the  sea  where  the  estate  of 
Walibou  had  been.  Richmond,  an  estate  adjacent  to  Walibou, 
which  was  formerly  flat,  and  upon  which  there  were  several  labor- 
ers' cottages,  had  been  completely  burned,  and  out  of  the  estate 
there  had  arisen  a  laree  ridofe  of  ground.  A  ravine  a  hundred 
feet  deep,  the  source  of  the  Rabacca  or  Dry  River,  was  filled  level 
with  lava.  This  river  bed  had  been  dry  since  the  eruption  of  1812, 
and  will  perhaps  be  dry  forever. 

The  estimate  of  deaths  had  gradually  grown  from  a  few  hun- 
dred to  1600  by  the  12th,  this  being  the  estimate  sent  to  Secretary 
Hay  by  our  special  correspondent  on  the  island  of  Barbados, 
General  A.  S.  MacAUister,  United  States  Consul  at  that  island. 
The  followino-  is  the  text  of  his  cable  messaoe  : — "Sixteen  hundred 
deaths  at  St.  Vincent ;  four  thousand  destitute.  Immediate  wants 
supplied.     Aid  needed  for  six  months.     This  authentic." 

As  the  days  went  by  still  more  dead  bodies  were  discovered. 
Of  these  400  remained  unburied.  But  that  was  the  least  of  the 
trouble.  Thus  far  no  effort  had  been  made  to  do  more  than  care 
for  the  living  and  bury  the  dead.  All  about  were  dead  cattle,  pol- 
luting the  atmosphere,  which  already  was  heavily  laden  with 
disease.  In  one  of  the  ravines  near  Morne  Garou  the  bodies  of 
eigty-seven  Carib  Indians  were  found  heaped  together.  Not  far 
away  were  the  carcasses  of  hundreds  of  cattle. 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT  125 

It  was  later  ordered  that  these  menaces  to  Hf  e  should  be  removed, 
quicklime  being  used  to  destroy  the  bodies.  Fires  were  kindled 
over  the  district  which  was  laid  waste  by  Soufriere,  and  in  these 
were  thrust  the  carcasses  of  the  dead  cattle. 

A  correspondent's  statement 

On  May  15  a  press  correspondent  returned  from  a  visit,  on 
horseback,  to  the  devastated  district  of  the  island,  through  which 
he  made  a  journey  of  fifty  miles,  and  penetrated  to  within  five  miles 
of  the  crater.      The  followinor  was  the  result  of  his  observations  : — 

"  The  entire  northern  part  of  the  island  is  covered  with  ashes 
to  an  average  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  varying  from  a  thin  layer 
at  Kingstown  to  two  feet  or  more  at  Georgetown.  The  crops 
are  ruined,  nothing  green  can  be  seen,  the  streets  of  Georgetown 
are  cumbered  with  snowdrift-like  heaps  of  ashes,  and  ashes  rest  so 
heavily  on  the  roofs  that  in  several  cases  they  have  caused  them  to 
fall  in.  There  will  soon  be  5,000  destitute  persons  in  need  of  assis- 
tance from  the  government,  which  is  already  doing  everything 
possible  to  relieve  the  sufferers.  There  are  a  hundred  injured 
people  in  the  hospital  at  Georgetown,  gangs  of  men  are  searching 
for  the  dead  or  rapidly  burying  them  in  trenches,  and  all  that  can 
be  done  under  the  circumstances  is  being  accomplished. 

"  The  arrival  here  of  the  first  detachment  of  the  Ambulance 
Corps,  which  brought  sufferers  from  Georgetown,  caused  a  sensa- 
tion. This  batch  consisted  of  a  hundred  persons,  whose  charred 
bodies  exhaled  fetid  odors,  and  whose  loathsome  faces  made  even 
the  hospital  attendants  shudder.  All  these  burned  persons  were 
suffering  fearfully  from  thirst  and  uttering,  when  strong  enough  to 
do  so,  agonizing  cries  for  water.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the 
whole  party  will  recover. 


126  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST    VINCENT 

"  While  the  outbreak  of  the  volcano  on  the  island  of  Martin- 
ique killed  more  people  outright,  more  territory  has  been  ruined  in 
St.  Vincent,  hence  there  is  greater  destitution  here.  The  injured 
persons  were  horribly  burned  by  the  hot  grit,  which  was  driven 
along  with  tremendous  velocity.  Twenty-six  persons  who  sought 
refuge  in  a  room  ten  feet  by  twelve  were  all  killed.  One  person 
was  brained  by  a  huge  stone  nine  miles  from  the  crater. 

BURIAL    AND    TARE    OF     VICTIMS 

"  Roueh  coffins  are  beinof  made  to  receive  the  bodies  of  the 
victims.  The  hospital  here  is  filled  with  dying  people.  Fifty  in- 
jured persons  are  lying  on  the  floor  of  that  building,  as  there  are 
no  beds  for  their  accommodation,  though  cots  are  being  rapidly 
constructed  of  boards.  This  and  similar  work  has  been  going  on 
since  immediately  after  the  disaster,  but  two  days  elapsed  before 
there  were  any  burials,  as  the  negroes  refused  to  dig  the  necessary 
trenches,  though  they  were  offered  three  times  their  usual  wages 
by  the  local  authorities.  The  nurses  employed  are  incompetent, 
but  they  are  willing  to  learn,  and  are  working  hard.  The  negroes 
are  indifferent  to  all  that  has  taken  place.  They  expect  to  receive 
government  rations.  There  have  been  instances  where  they  have 
refused  to  bury  their  own  relatives. 

"Since  midnight  on  Tuesday  the  subterranean  detonations 
here  have  ceased,  and  the  Soufriere  on  Wednesday  relapsed,  ap- 
parently, into  perfect  repose,  no  smoke  rising  from  the  crater,  and 
the  fissures  emitting  no  vapor.  The  stunted  vegetation  that  for- 
merly adorned  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  has  disappeared,  having 
given  place  to  gray-colored  lava,  which  greets  the  eye  on  every 
side.  The  atmosphere  is  dry.  Rain  would  be  welcome,  as  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  dust  in  the  air,  which  is  disagreeable  and  irritating 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT  127 

to  the  throats  and  eyes,  and  is  causing  the  merchants  to  put  all 
their  drygoods  under  cover.  The  white  inhabitants  are  anxious  to 
know  whether  the  repose  of  the  volcano  is  permanent,  or  whether 
it  is  the  lull  which  usually  precedes  greater  activity.  Some  people, 
anticipating  that  there  is  danger  of  further  volcanic  eruptions,  are 
leaving  the  outlying  towns  for  this  city.  The  negroes  who  have 
remained  on  the  estates  are  half-starved,  and  the  few  Carib  survivors 
are  lea^ving  their  caves  and  pillaging  abandoned  dwelling  houses 
and  shops.  A  number  of  arrests  have  been  made  in  this  con- 
nection. 

ASPECT    OF    THE    VOLCANO 

"  The  report  that  the  volcanic  lake  which  occupied  the  top  of 
the  mountain  has  disappeared  appears  to  be  confirmed.  A  sea  of 
lava,  emitting  sulphurous  fumes,  now  apparently  occupies  the  place, 
and  several  new  craters  have  been  formed.  The  last  time  the  volcano 
showed  activity,  on  Tuesday  last,  the  craters,  old  and  new,  and 
numerous  fissures  in  the  mountain  sides  discharged  hot  vapor,  deep 
subterranean  murmurings  were  heard,  the  ground  trembled  at 
times,  from  the  centre  of  the  volcano  huge  volumes  of  steam  rose 
like  gigantic  pine  trees  toward  the  sky,  and  a  dense  black  smoke, 
minelincr  with  the  steam,  issued  from  a  new  and  active  crater,  form- 
ing  an  immense  pall  over  the  northern  hills,  lowering  into  the  val- 
leys and  then  rising  and  spreading  until  it  enveloped  the  whole 
island  in  a  peculiar  gray  mist.  Simultaneous  action  upon  the  part 
of  the  volcanoes  of  Martinique  and  St.  Vincent  seems  to  denote  a 
volcanic  connection  between  these  islands,  and  appears  to  verify 
the  assumption  of  the  volcanic  origin  of  the  mountain  chains  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  Soufriere  in  the  Windward  districts, 

"The  sulphurous  vapors,  which  still  exhale  all  over  the  island, 
are  increasing   the    sickness    and  mortality  among    the    surviving 


128  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT 

inhabitants,  and  are  causing  suffering  among  the  new  arrivals.  The 
hospital  staffs  are  giving  way  to  overwork,  and  are  with  difficulty 
bearing  up,  but  the  news  of  the  dispatch  of  an  ambulance  corps 
from  the  garrison  at  Barbados  and  the  statements  made  that  fur- 
ther medical  assistance  will  arrive  here  shortly  are  having  a  benefi- 
cial effect  upon  all  concerned. 

"  The  stench  in  the  affflcted  districts  is  terrible  beyond  descrip- 
tion. Nearly  all  the  huts  left  standing  are  filled  with  dead  bodies. 
In  some  cases  disinfectants  and  the  usual  means  of  disposing  of  the 
dead  are  useless,  and  cremation  has  been  resorted  to.  When  it  is 
possible  the  bodies  are  dragged  with  ropes  to  the  trenches  and  are 
there  hastily  covered  up,  quicklime  being  used  when  available. 
Many  of  the  dead  bodies  were  so  covered  with  dust  that  they  were 
not  discovered  until  walked  upon  by  visitors,  or  by  the  relieving 
officers  or  their  assistants.  The  scenes  witnessed  were  unprece- 
dented in  the  history  of  this  colony. 

"  Much  importance  is  attached  locally  to  the  loss  which  the 
colony  has  sustained  in  the  injury  to  the  peasant  proprietary,  a 
scheme  for  whose  development  was  lately  started  by  the  imperial 
government,  with  a  view  to  assist  the  inhabitants  and  in  order  to 
encourage  the  people  to  attain  prosperity." 

A     LATER    STATEMENT 

A  later  statement  from  Kingstown  gave  additional  informa- 
tion, as  follows : 

"  Were  it  possible  to  obtain  transportation  this  island  would 
be  depopulated  in  a  day.  Such  is  the  fear  of  further  outbreak  of 
La  Soufriere.  The  volcano  has  ceased  to  be  active,  but  there  is 
general  dread  that  it  will  break  forth  in  mightier  eruption. 

"  La  Soufriere  seems  to  have  changed  its  shape.  Its  conical  top 
has  disappeared,  and  from  a  distance  the  mountain  looks  as  though  a 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.   VINCENT  129 

thumb  had  been  pressed  upon  it,  crushing  down  its  apex.  Where 
a  pretty  blue  lake  of  great  depth  existed  a  fortnight  ago  there  is 
now  a  bubblino-  cauldron  of  molten  lava.  Above  this  clouds  of 
smoke  and  steam  constantly  rise.  Over  the  island  spreads  a  pecu- 
liar mist,  injurious  to  the  eyes  and  containing  noxious  properties 
that  cause  much  distress. 

"Some  of  the  huts  built  by  the  Carib  Indians  still  stand,  and  in 
every  one  there  are  bodiee.  Scattered  about  in  the  open  there  are 
hundreds  of  bodies,  blistering  in  the  terrible  heat.  The  result  is 
that  a  noxious  exhalation  spreads  over  the  island  of  St.  Vincent  that 
is  nauseating  and  which  threatens  a  pestilence.  This,  In  addition 
to  the  scarcity  of  food  and  water,  makes  the  situation  serious." 

On  the  night  of  May  18  the  alarm  of  the  people  of  St.  Vin- 
cent was  renewed.  The  volcano,  which  had  been  temporarily  still, 
resumed  Its  activity.  Throughout  Sunday  the  adjoining  districts 
trembled,  and  some  of  the  shocks  were  felt  at  Kingstown.  Smoke 
issued  from  the  craters  and  fissures  of  the  mountain,  and  the  atmos- 
phere throughout  the  island  of  St.  Vincent  was  exceedingly  hot. 
While  the  worshippers  were  returning  from  church  at  8.30  p.  m.,  an 
alarming  luminous  cloud  suddenly  ascended  many  miles  high  in  the 
north  of  the  island,  and  drifted  sluggishly  to  the  northeast.  Inces- 
sant lightning  fell  on  the  mountain,  and  one  severe  flash  seemed  to 
strike  about  three  miles  from  Kingstown.  The  thunderous  rumb- 
lings In  the  craters  lasted  for  two  hours  and  then  diminished  until 
they  became  mere  murmurlngs.  During  the  remainder  of  the  night 
the  volcano  was  quiet,  though  ashes  fell  from  10  o'clock  until  mid- 
night. The  inhabitants  were  frenzied  with  fear  at  the  time  of  the 
outbreak,  dreading  a  repetition  of  the  catastrophe  which  had  caused 
such  terrible  loss  of  life  on  the  Island.  They  ran  from  the  streets 
into  the  open  country,  crying  and  praying  for  preservation  from  an- 
other calamity.  No  one  on  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent  slept  that  night. 
9 


I30  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.    VINCENT 

Reports  received  from  the  districts  in  the  vicinity  of  the  vol- 
cano said  that  the  rumblings  of  the  craters  were  appalling,  and  that 
streams  of  lava  flowed  down  the  mountain  side.  The  villagers  who 
had  fled  to  Chateau  Belaire  and  Georgetown  for  safety  poured 
into  Kingstown,  this  being  the  furthest  town  from  Soufriere.  The 
royal  mail  steamer  Wear  brought  refugees  there  from  Chateau 
Belaire.  Kingstown  became  congested,  and  the  demands  on  the 
Government  increased  rapidly  as  more  and  more  people  were 
obliged  to  leave  their  homes  and  business. 

REIGN    OF   TERROR    AT    KINGSTOWN. 

The  continuous  agitation  of  the  volcano  and  the  absence  of  rain 
caused  the  vicinity  of  the  afflicted  villages  to  look  like  portions  of 
the  Desert  of  Sahara.  A  thick,  smoky  cloud  overspread  the  island, 
all  business  was  suspended,  the  streets  were  empty  and  everyone 
was  terror  stricken.  The  feeling  of  suspense  grew  painful.  People 
passed  their  time  gazing  at  the  northern  sky,  where  the  thunder 
clouds  gathered  and  the  mournful  roaring  of  the  volcano  was  heard. 
Ashes  and  pumice  fell  slowly  in  the  out  districts,  and  a  new  reign 
of  terror  existed  in  the  island.  But  during  the  next  day  the  vol- 
canic disturbances  moderated,  and  some  degree  of  calm  returned  to 
the  afflicted  islanders. 

A  cable  message  of  date  of  May  22  said:  "I  have  just  re- 
turned from  visiting  the  leeward  side  of  the  island.  La  Soufriere 
is  still  very  active.  Lava  is  streaming  into  the  sea,  while  clouds  of 
sulphurous  smoke,  extending  for  miles,  obscure  the  land  and  com- 
pelled us  to  steam  seaward  at  full  speed.  We  rescued  120  Caribs 
from  Cura,  twenty-three  miles  from  here.  We  saw  another  cratef, 
between  La  Soufriere  and  Chateau  Belaire,  emitting  stones,  and 
also  smaller  vents  elsewhere. 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT  131 

"  The  food  of  the  peasantry  is  ruined  and  everywhere  the  is- 
land is  bhghted  for  fruit  and  vegetables.  Cattle  are  being  shipped 
to  other  islands  for  pasturage.  The  laborers  in  the  sugar  districts 
have  killed  their  horses  for  food,  and  are  now  dying  from  diseases 
of  the  intestines  caused  by  the  lava  dust." 

As  varied  personal  accounts  have  been  given  from  eye-wit- 
nesses of  the  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee,  it  seems  proper  to  present 
here  similar  descriptions  from  some  of  those  who  saw  the  outburst 
from  La  Soufriere  and  escaped  the  mountain's  wrath.  Here  is  a 
brief  story  of  the  experience  of  a  Chateau  Belaire  fisherman  : 

WHAT    A    FISHERMAN    SAW 

"  I  was  fishing  at  some  distance  from  the  shore  when  my  boat- 
man said  to  me,  'Look  at  the  Soufriere,  sir.      It  is  smoking!' 

''  From  the  top  of  the  cone,  reaching  far  up  into  the  heavens,  a 
dark  column  of  smoke  arose,  while  the  mouth  of  the  crater  itself 
glowed  like  a  gigantic  forge  belching  a  huge  jet  of  yellow  flame. 
The  mass  of  smoke  spread  out  into  branches  extending  for  m4les, 
and  clouds  of  sulphurous  vapor,  overflowing,  as  it  were,  the  bowl  of 
the  crater,  began  to  roll  down  the  mountain  slopes. 

"  We  reached  shore  and  started  to  run  for  our  lives.  We 
were  soon  enveloped  in  impenetrable  darkness,  and  I  was  unable 
to  distinguish  the  white  shirt  of  my  boatman  at  a  yard's  distance. 
But  as  he  knew  every  inch  of  the  ground,  I  held  on  to  a  stick  he 
had,  and  so  we  stumbled  on  until  we  reached  a  place  of  safety. 
The  incessant  roar  of  the  volcano,  the  rumbling  of  the  thunder, 
the  flashes  of  the  lightning,  added  to  the  terrific  grandeur  of  the 
scene.  At  last  we  emerged  from  the  pall  of  death,  half  suffocated, 
and  with  our  temples  throbbing  as  if  they  were  going  to  burst." 


132  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 

One  of  a  batch  of  ten  persons  who  were  rescued,  after  living 
for  several  days  without  food  or  water,  from  a  house  in  which  five 
other  persons  had  perished,  gave  in  these  words  what  he  remem- 
bered of  the  occurrence  : 

"  We  heard  the  mountain  roaring  the  whole  morning,  but  we 
thought  it  would  pass  off,  and  we  did  not  like  to  abandon  our 
homes,  so  we  chanced  it.  About  half-past  one  it  began  to  rain 
pebbles  and  stones,  some  of  which  were  alight ;  but  then,  although 
we  were  afraid,  we  could  not  leave.  The  big  explosion  must  have 
taken  place  at  about  half-past  two  o'clock.  There  was  fire  all 
around  me  and  I  could  not  breathe.  My  hands  and  feet  got 
burned,  but  I  managed  to  reach  the  house  where  the  others  were. 

"In  two  hours  everything  was  over,  although  pebbles  and  dust 

fell  for  a  long  time  after.      My  burns  got  so  painful  and  stifT  that  I 

could  not  move.      We  remained  until  Sunday  morning  without  food 

or  water.      Five  persons  died,  and  as  none  of   us  could   throw  the 

bodies  out,  or  even  move,  we  had  to  lie  alongside  the  bodies  until 

we  were  rescued." 

MRS..  Leslie's  narrative 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  Georgetown  during  the  outbreak  of 
the  Soufriere  was  vividlv  described  by  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  A.  H. 
Leslie,  a  Wesleyan  minister,  who  was  in  the  place  at  the  time. 

"  From  Sunday  night.  May  4,"  said  Mrs,  Leslie,  "the  heat  had 
been  oppressive.  Never  had  I  experienced  such  heat  before.  It 
was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  one  could  breathe,  and  to  sleep  was 
impossible.  We  had  no  means  of  testing  the  temperature,  but  I 
am  satisfied  that  a  thermometer  would  have  shown  a  record  of 
great  intensity. 

'"  On  Tuesday  I  learned  from  Mrs.  Darrell  that  the  Chateau 
Belaire  side  of   the  mountain  was  showing  signs  of   activity.      On 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT  133 

Wednesday  morning,  between  nine  and  ten  o'clock,  the  lightning 
and  thunder  began.  Such  lightning  and  such  thunder  !  Oh,  it  is 
terrible  to  remember,  and  thrice  terrible  was  it  to  behold  !  Blind- 
inor  flashes  that  zicrzaeeed  with  hissing'  fury  and  a  lurid  licrht 
ominous  of  destruction. 

"  Mr.  Leslie  said  he  had  never  before  heard  thunder  in  May, 
and  declared  the  occurrence  was  most  unusual.  He  left  the  house 
with  the  object  of  making  some  observations,  and  on  his  return  he 
said  that  the  Soufriere  was  active. 

"  In  the  meantime  some  fisher  girls,  who  came  down  from  the 
mountain,  said  they  had  observed  the  water  in  the  mountain  lake 
to  be  boiling  rapidly  and  the  grass  in  the  vicinity  to  be  torn  up. 
Then,  you  will  understand,  I  got  anxious.  The  storm  grew  in  fury. 
The  thunder  became  louder  and  louder.  Nature's  forces  were 
cannonadinor  with  a  fierceness  of  detonation  that  would  have  awed 
the  bravest  of  human  hearts. 

UNDER    A    RAIN    OF    STONES 

"  Amid  the  crashing  thunder  peals  and  the  dreadful  lightning 
there  began  to  fall  a  shower  of  small  pebbles,  and  later  on  there  fell 
stones  as  big  as  your  fist.  Meanwhile  dismal  rumblings  were 
heard,  as  though  the  mountain  grroaned  under  the  weight  of  accu- 
mulated  fury,  and  the  earth  swayed  in  deep  sympathy. 

"  At  half-past  two  o'clock  the  explosion  occurred  and  dark- 
ness fell  upon  the  land.  What  words  can  depict  the  sound  or  tell 
of  the  sensation  it  caused  those  who  heard  it  ?  Language  is  inade- 
quate to  the  task.  Vain  would  it  be  to  ransack  the  vocabularies  of 
dead  or  living  languages  in  the  hope  of  finding  adequate  terms. 
The  sounds  were  weird  and  abysmal,  and  caused  our  hearts  to 
quiver  with  fear. 


134  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 

"  The  rain  of  big  stones  continued  up  to  about  eleven  o'clock 
at  night,  when  sand  began  to  fall.  From  where  we  were,  we  could 
see  the  reflection  of  the  fire  in  the  sky,  but  could  not  see  the  blaze. 
So  terrible  were  the  earthquake  shocks  as  to  give  the  impression 
that  the  end  of  the  world  had  come.  The  hours  of  the  night — 
that  night  of  horrors ! — crept  slowly  along  with  leaden  feet,  and 
morning  was  so  long  in  coming  that  it  seemed  as  though  daylight 
had  been  extinguished  for  all  time.  But  at  last  morning  broke. 
Not  a  morning  like  the  rosy-fingered  mornings  of  tropical  bright- 
ness and  sunshiny  beauty  that  we  had  been  accustomed  to,  but  a 
dull,  dismal,  dreary  day  came,  not  much  distinguishable  from  the 
preceding  night  of  Egyptian  darkness.  But  it  was  day,  and  that 
fact  afforded  some  measure  of  relief.  We  could  see  and  hear  others 
in  the  town. 

"  Numbers  of  persons  now  began  to  flock  into  Georgetown 
from  the  adjoining  country,  and  to  bring  accounts  of  the  death  of 
this  person  and  that  person,  of  the  extinction  of  this  family  and 
that  family.  This  continued  all  day.  The  tale  of  death  and  ca- 
lamity was  one  long,  unbroken,  sad,  sad  one.  Among  those  who 
came  into  the  town  or  were  brought  in  were  many  who  had  been 
stricken  by  lightning  and  were  paralyzed,  or  who  had  been  scorched 
by  the  burning  hot  sand  and  were  blistered  and  sore." 

The  Rev.  J.  H.  Darrell,  rector  of  a  little  English  church  in 
Georgetown,  describes  his  knowledge  of  the  calamity  in  the  follow- 
ing eloquent  language : 

"Never  in  the  history  of  this  lovely  island  has  it  been  visited 
with  such  awful  distress  as  that  which  now  prevails.  The  hurricane 
of  1898  entailed  great  loss  and  general  distress,  but  this  never-to- 
be-forgotten  disaster  has  resulted  in  more  than  five  times  the  loss 
of  life,  as  well  as  greater  loss  of  property.     The  loss  in  property, 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT  135 

perhaps,  has  not  been  so  widespread  as  it  was  in  1898,  but  I  am 
certain  that  the  total  loss  has  been  far  greater  in  this  calamity  than 
it  was  then. 

"  I  have  investigated  the  awful  tragedy  as  clearly  as  I  know 
how,  and  I  have  made  up  my  mind  that  the  most  of  those  killed 
died  from  suffocation.  In  their  houses,  on  the  roads,  in  the  fields 
where  they  were  at  work,  they  were  overcome  in  a  moment  and 
expired  almost  in  an  instant.  Bodies  have  been  found  sitting  up- 
right in  chairs,  and  others  were  rigid  and  as  if  about  to  continue 
the  tasks  in  which  they  were  engaged  at  the  time  the  blast  struck 
them." 

ERUPTION    OF    THE    SOUFRIERE 

•  "  A  few  slight,  significant  warnings  were  given  before  the 
present  outburst,"  he  went  on  to  say.  "Admonitory  rumblings 
and  occasional  earthquakes  occurred  in  the  vicinity  several  days 
before — indications  that  the  mountain  was  preparing  for  the  ma- 
jestic performance  with  which  it  has  astonished  and  awed  the 
inhabitants  of  this  lovely  island — but  it  was  only  on  Monday,  May 
5,  that  what  we  supposed  was  a  dormant  volcano  gave  any  plain 
indications  of  disquietude. 

"  It  was  on  Tuesday,  May  6,  at  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  that 
the  mountain  began  its  series  of  volcanic  efforts.  A  strong  shock 
of  earthquake,  accompanied  by  a  terrible  noise,  occurred,  and  the 
volcano  began  to  emit  steam.  This  was  reported  to  the  residents 
of  Georgetown  by  the  police  corporal  in  charge  of  Chateau  Belaire. 
At  5  o'clock  that  same  afternoon  louder  and  more  frequent  explo- 
sions were  heard,  the  detonations  succeeding  each  other  in  rapidly 
diminishing  intervals.  At  half-past  7  o'clock  columns  of  steam 
issued  from  the  old  crater  with  terrific  noise.  These  lasted  until 
midnight,   when   another  heavy  explosion    occurred.     There  was 


136  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 

another  sudden  and  violent  escape  of  pent-up  steam  at  7  o'clock  on 
Wednesday  morning,  May  7,  which  continued  ascending  until  10 
o'clock,  when  other  material  began  to  be  ejected. 

"It  would  seem  that  this  was  the  time  when  the  enormous 
mass  of  water  in  the  lake  of  the  old  crater  was  emitted  in  a  gaseous 
condition.  By  noon  it  appeared  that  there  were  three  craters  vomit- 
ing lava — the  two  old  craters,  one  of  which  had  contained  the  lake, 
and  a  third  crater  that  is  supposed  to  have  been  opened  in  the 
present  eruption.  Six  distinct  streams  of  lava  were  visible  running 
down  the  sides  of  the  mountain.  The  resurrection  of  the  two  old 
fiery  furnaces,  with  the  addition  of  a  fresh  crater,  was  something 
awful  to  behold.  The  mountain  labored  to  rid  itself  of  the  burn- 
ing mass  of  lava  heaving  and  tossing  below. 

FLAME-LIKE    APPEARANCES 

"By  half-past  12  it  was  evident  that  the  mountain  had  begun 
to  disengage  itself  of  its  burden  by  the  appearance  as  of  fire  flash- 
ing now  and  then  around  the  edge  of  the  craters.  There  was, 
however,  no  visible  ascension  of  flame.  These  flame-like  appear- 
ances were,  I  think,  occasioned  by  the  molten  lava  rising  up  to  the 
neck  of  the  volcano.  Being  quite  luminous,  the  light  emitted  was 
reflected  from  the  banks  of  steam  above,  giving  them  the  appear- 
ance of  flame.  Prom  the  time  the  volcano  became  fully  active 
tremendous  detonations  followed  one  another  so  rapidly  that  they 
seemed  to  merge  into  a  continuous  roar,  which  lasted  all  through 
Wednesday  night  and  up  to  half-past  6  o'clock  of  Friday  morning. 
May  9.  These  detonations  and  thunders  were  heard  as  far  as  Bar- 
bados, Grenada,  Trinidad  and  St.  Lucia,  and  as  far  north  as  St. 
Thomas. 

"  In  company  with  several  gentlemen,  on  Wednesday  at  noon 
I  left  in  a  small  row-boat  to  go  to  Chateau  Belaire,  where  we  hoped 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT  137 

to  get  a  better  view  of  the  eruption.  As  we  passed  Layou,  the 
first  town  on  the  leeward  coast,  the  smell  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
was  very  perceptible.  Before  we  got  half  way  on  our  journey  a 
vast  column  of  steam,  smoke  and  ashes  ascended  to  a  prodigious 
elevation,  falling  apparently  in  the  vicinity  of  Georgetown.  The 
majestic  body  of  curling  vapor  was  sublime  beyond  imagination. 
We  were  about  eight  miles  from  the  crater,  as  the  crow  flies,  and 
the  top  of  the  enormous  column  eight  miles  off  reached  higher 
than  one-fourth  of  the  segment  of  the  circle.  I  judge  that  the 
awful  pillar  was  fully  eight  miles  in  height. 

"  We  were  rapidly  proceeding  to  our  point  of  observation, 
when  an  immense  cloud,  dark,  dense  and  apparently  thick  with 
volcanic  material,  descended  over  our  pathway,  impeding  our  pro- 
gress and  warning  us  to  proceed  no  farther.  This  mighty  bank  of 
sulphurous  vapor  and  smoke  assumed  at  one  time  the  shape  of  a 
gigantic  promontory,  then  appeared  as  a  collection  of  twirling,  re- 
volving cloud  whorls,  turning  with  rapid  velocity  ;  now  assuming 
the  shape  of  gigantic  cauliflowers,  then  efflorescing  into  beautiful 
flower  shapes,  some  dark,  some  effulgent,  some  bronze,  others 
pearly  white  and  all  brilliantly  illuminated  by  electric  flashes. 

DARKNESS    AS    DENSE    AS    STARLESS    MIDNIGHT. 

"  Darkness,  however,  soon  fell  upon  us.  The  sulphurous  air 
was  laden  with  fine  dust,  that  fell  thickly  upon  and  around  us,  dis- 
coloring the  sea.  A  black  rain  began  to  fall,  followed  by  another 
rain  of  favilla,  lapilli  and  scoriae.  The  electric  flashes  were  mar- 
velously  rapid  in  their  motions,  and  numerous  beyond  all  compu- 
tation. These,  with  the  thundering  noise  of  the  mountain,  mingled 
with  the  dismal  roar  of  the  lava,  the  shocks  of  earthquakes,  the 
falling  stones,  the  enormous  quantity  of  material  ejected  from  the 


138  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 

belching  craters,  producing  a  darkness  as  dense  as  a  starless  mid- 
night, together  with  the  plutonic  energy  of  the  mountain,  growing 
greater  and  greater  every  moment,  combined  to  make  up  a  scene 
of  horror. 

"  It  was  after  5  o'clock  when  we  returned  to  Kingstown,  awed 
and  impressed  by  the  weirdness  of  the  scene  we  had  witnessed,  and 
covered  with  the  still  thickly  falling  gray  dust.  Of  what  this  ma- 
terial is  composed  I  am  unable  to  give  a  certain  opinion,  but  it 
appears  to  consist  of  comminuted  rock,  powdered  by  attrition  of 
the  material,  as  in  successive  outbursts  it  is  hurled  aloft  and  then 
tumbles  back  again  to  the  burning  crater,  to  be  ejected  finally  as 
impalpable  dust.  So  minute  are  the  particles  that  they  find  their 
way  through  the  finest  chinks  of  a  closed  room.  Large  areas  of 
cultivation  have  been  buried  under  the  fall  of  the  dust.  Its  effect 
upon  vegetation  will  probably  be  beneficial  ultimately,  but  in  the 
meantime  great  suffering,  as  well  as  inconvenience,  is  occasioned 
by  it." 

AN    EXCURSION    THROUGH    ST.   VINCENT 

An  observer  after  the  event  tells  of  what  he  saw  and  learned 
in  an  excursion  through  the  devastated  island  : 

"  It  was  only  on  Friday  afternoon  that  residents  of  Kingstown, 
the  capital,  began  to  gain  some  idea  of  the  disaster  which  had  be- 
fallen the  country  of  the  Caribs,  as  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Windward  coast  is  called.  Georgetown  is  the  centre  of  that  once 
fertile  and  beautiful  district,  now  a  desolate  waste  of  ashes.  Be- 
tween this  town  and  the  capital  there  is  a  fairly  good  road,  running 
for  the  most  part  along  the  sea. 

"  The  country  is  undulating  and  very  picturesque  most  of  the 
way,  and  at  one  time  was  planted  entirely  in  sugar  cane.  Wind- 
mills and   factories  in  ruins  remain  as  good  evidences  of  the   past 


THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST  VINCENT  139 

prosperity  of  the  island.  To-day  the  cuhivation  of  arrowroot  has 
taken  the  place  of  that  of  sugar  cane,  and  one  passes  field  after 
field  of  broad-leafed  marantas  on  the  way  to  Georgetown. 

**  The  journey  is  usually  performed  on  horseback,  but  a  mail 
wagon,  which  takes  passengers,  plies  regularly  along  the  road.  It 
is  also  possible  to  obtain  at  times  some  sort  of  a  vehicle  drawn  by 
mules,  and  it  was  by  one  of  these  conveyances  that  I  proceeded  to 
Georgetown  on  the  day  after  the  eruption. 

"  It  is  almost  impossible  to  convey  in  writing  any  idea  of  the 
desolate  appearance  of  the  country  beyond  the  fifteen-mile  post ; 
that  is  fifteen  miles  from  Kingstown  and  seven  from  George- 
town. The  whole  place  looked  as  if  millions  of  barrels  of  cement 
had  been  emptied  over  the  land,  covering  every  inch  of  ground 
with  a  coat  of  dismal  gray.  As  we  proceeded  I  noticed  that  the 
small  stones  scattered  about  were  of  larger  size  and  that  the  bed  of 
dust  became  thicker  until  we  reached  Georgetown,  where  the 
streets  were  covered  to  a  depth  of  three  feet.  The  roofs  of  the 
thatched  huts,  unable  to  bear  the  weight  of  volcanic  dust  cast  upon 
them,  had  in  many  cases  caved  in,  while  the  trees  were  burnt  and 
bare  of  leaves,  imparting  a  dreary  appearance  to  the  landscape." 

PROFESSOR    HOVEy's    VIEWS 

Prof.  O.  E.  Hovey,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, of  New  York,  one  of  the  first  of  the  visiting  scientists  to  St. 
Vincent,  gives  thus  his  view  concerning  the  eruption  : 

"  The  history  of  the  eruption  is  practically  that  of  the  disturb- 
ance of  1812.  Earthquakes,  occurred  here  about  a  year  ago,  and 
have  occurred  at  intervals  at  various  places  in  the  West  Indies  and 
adjacent  regions  ever  since.  At  least  one  resident  of  Kingstown,  F. 
W.  Griffiths,  several  months  ago  predicted  that  La  Soufriere  would 


I40  THE  DESOLATION  OF  ST.  VINCENT 

soon  break  out.  His  prophecy  was  not  heeded  until  last  month, 
when  the  activity  of  the  mountain  became  so  alarming^  that  the 
inhabitants  on  the  west,  or  leeward,  side  of  the  mountain,  abandoned 
their  plantations  and  cabins,  and  took  refuge  in  the  more  secure 
parts  of  the  island.  On  account  of  the  strength  of  the  trade-winds, 
it  was  not  supposed  that  the  eastward  side  of  the  mountain  would 
suffer  very  much.  This  proved  a  painful  delusion,  causing  the  loss 
of  hundreds  of  lives. 

"  A  vast  column  of  volcanic  dust,  cinders,  blocks  of  lava  and 
asphyxiating  gases  rose  thousands  of  feet  in  the  air,  spreading  in 
all  directions.  A  large  portion  of  this,  having  reached  the  upper 
currents,  was  carried  eastward.  This,  all  falling,  was  again  divided, 
and  the  cinders  and  deadly  gases  were  swept  by  the  lower  winds 
back  upon  the  eastward  side  of  the  mountain.  The  wrecked 
houses  show  this,  the  windows  on  the  side  toward  the  crater  being 
unaffected,  while  those  on  the  farther  side  were  wrecked  by  the 
back  draught  toward  the  mountain.  There  was  no  wind  on  the 
morning  of  the  great  outburst,  a  fact  which  facilitated  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  country.  The  hot  asphyxiating  gases  rolled  out  of  the 
crater,  and  many  were  scorched  and  suffocated.  Hot  mud,  falling 
from  the  cloud  above,  stuck  to  the  flesh  of  the  unfortunate  victims, 
causing  bad  wounds.  Great  blocks  of  stone  were  thrown  out  of 
the  eastern  side  of  the  crater,  which  could  be  distinctly  seen  at  a 
distance  of  four  miles." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Sympathy  and  Aid  of  the  United  States. 

THE  government  and  people  of  the  United  States,  ever  ready 
as  they  have  always  been,  to  respond  to  the  appeal  of  the  ' 
sufferinor  and  lend  their  aid  to  the  unfortunate  victims  of  dis- 
aster  of  any  kind,  lost  no  time  in  awaking  to  the  need  of  instant 
relief  to  the  surviving  people  of  Martinique.  No  sooner  was  the 
overwhelming  shock  of  the  first  tidings  of  the  dread  disaster 
thrown  off,  than  the  government  actively  began  the  work  of  benefi- 
cent assistance,  and  the  generous-hearted  in  city  and  country  alike 
offered  their  contributions  in  aid  of  those  in  peril  of  death  from 
famine  in  the  ruined  West  Indian  island.  The  rain  of  fire  from 
the  burning  mountain  had  destroyed  the  supplies  of  food,  and 
starvation  threatened  those  whtD  had  escaped  the  volcano's  awful 
doom.  The  need  of  immediate  action  was  very  great,  and  not  an 
hour  was  lost. 

President  Roosevelt  was  among  the  first  of  rulers  to  express 
sympathy  for  France  in  the  frightful  fate  which  had  come  upon  so 
many  thousands  of  her  subjects.  On  Saturday,  the  day  after  hear- 
ing of  the  disaster,  he  telegraphed  as  follows  to  the  French  Presi- 
dent:  ''  "Washington,  May  lo,  1902. 
"His    Excellency,    M.   Emile    Loubet,    President    of    the   French 

Republic,  Paris. 

"  I  pray  your  Excellency  to  accept  the  profound  sympathy  of 

the  American  people  in  the  appalling  calamity    which  has   come 

upon  the  people  of  Martinique.  "  Theodore   Roosevelt," 

141 


142  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

President  Loubet  returned  the  following  reply  : 

"  Paris,  May  1 1,  1902, 
"President  Roosevelt. 

"  I  thank  your  Excellency  for  the  expression  of  profound  sym- 
pathy you  have  sent  me  in  the  name  of  the  American  people  on 
the  occasion  of  the  awful  catastrophe  in  Martinique.  The  French 
people  will  certainly  join  me  in  thanks  to  the  American  people. 

"  Emile  Loubet." 

action  of    the   european  rulers 

The  leading  rulers  of  Europe  took  similar  action.  On  May 
1 2th  Emperor  William  of  Germany,  sent  the  following  telegram  in 
the  French    language  to  President  Loubet : 

"  Profoundly  moved  by  the  news  of  the  terrible  catastrophe 
which  has  just  overtaken  St.  Pierre  and  which  has  cost  the  lives  of 
nearly  as  many  persons  as  perished  at  Pompeii,  I  hasten  to  offer 
France  my  most  sincere  sympathy.  May  the  Almighty  comfort 
the  hearts  of  those  who  weep  for  their  irreparable  losses.  My 
Ambassador  will  remit  to  your  Excellency  the  sum  of  10,000  marks 
in  my  behalf  as  a  contribution  for  the  relief  of  the  afflicted." 

President  Loubet  replied  : 

"  Am  greatly  touched  by  the  mark  of  sympathy  which,  in  this 
terrible  misfortune  which  has  fallen  on  France,  your  Majesty  has 
deigned  to  convey  to  me.  I  beg  you  to  accept  my  warm  thanks  and 
also  the  gratitude  of  the  victims  whom  you  propose  to  succor." 

King  Edward,  of  England,  commanded  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary, Mr.  Chamberlain,  to  telegraph  to  the  Governor  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  Sir  Robert  Llewelyn,  his  Majesty's  deep  regret  at 
the  calamity  which  had  visited  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent  and  his 
sympathy  with  the  sufferers  and  the  bereaved.     The  Governor  was 


.      SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  143 

also  instructed  to  spend  all  the  money  necessary  for  their  relief,  and 
the  King  sent  25,000  francs  as  his  contribution  to  the  fund  being 
raised  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  from  the  Martinique  disaster. 

The  Czar  of  Russia  telegraphed  to  President  Loubet  express- 
ing the  sincere  sympathy  of  himself  and  the  Czarina,  who  share 
with  France  the  sorrow  caused  by  the  terrible  West  Indian  catas- 
trophe. 

On  the  1 2th  the  Pope  summoned  the  French  Ambassador,  M. 
Nisard,  to  the  Vatican,  and  expressed  to  him  his  keen  sorrow  on 
hearing  of  the  St.  Pierre  disaster.  The  Pontiff  requested  that  he 
be  kept  informed  regarding  the  details  of  the  volcanic  outbreak. 

The  cable  messagfe  of  President  Loubet  was  succeeded  bv  the 
promptest  measures,  by  Congress  and  the  Executive  alike,  towards 
relief  for  the  fugitives  from  St.  Pierre. 

The  cruiser  Cincinnati  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  the  island 
without  delay,  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  situation  and  ex- 
tend aid  to  the  survivors.  The  ocean  tug  Potomac,  then  at  the 
naval  station  at  San  Juan,  received  similar  orders.  The  training 
ship  Dixie  was  ordered  to  prepare  for  sea  and  to  await  orders. 

The  action  of  the  administration  was  indorsed  and  supple- 
mented by  the  Senate,  which  passed  a  bill  appropriating  $100,000 
for  the  relief  of  the  distressed  inhabitants  of  Martinique.  This 
bill  would  have  gone  through  the  House  with  the  same  impressive 
promptness  as  in  the  Senate,  had  it  not  been  for  the  objection  of  a 
Representative,  of  Alabama,  probably  unheard  of  before.  This 
gentleman  expressed  the  opinion  that  Congress  should  await  the 
receipt  of  "official  details." 

The  Senate  bill  authorized  the  President  to  expend  the  money 
in  the  "purchase  of  such  provisions,  clothing,  medicines  and  other 
necessaries  as  he  shall  deem  advisable,  and  tender  the  same,  in  the 


144  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

name  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  to  the  government 
of  France  for  the  rehef  of  citizens  who  have  suffered  by  the  late 
earthquake  in  the  islands  of  the  French  West  Indies."  The  bill 
authorized  the  Secretary  of  War  to  use  the  necessary  steamships 
belonging  to  the  United  States  to  carry  its  purpose  into  effect. 

PROCEEDINGS    IN    CONGRESS 

Senator  Fairbanks,  who  presented  the  bill,  requested  the  im- 
mediate consideration  of  the  measure. 

"  Let  the  United  States  lead  in  the  act  of  caring  for  the 
stricken,"  said  Mr.  Fairbanks.  "  She  and  her  people  never  have 
failed  yet  to  be  moved  by  the  cry  of  distress  which  has  come  up 
from  other  lands.  Let  us  extend  our  sympathy  for  our  unfortunate 
fellow  men  and  send  with  it  from  our  abundant  stores  the  means 
necessary  to  succor  those  upon  whom  has  fallen  a  sudden  and  over- 
whelming calamity.  I  believe  that  in  tendering  our  sympathy  and 
assistance  we  shall  but  interpret  the  wishes  and  purposes  of  the 
humane,  generous  American  people." 

When  the  bill  was  presented  in  the  House  Representative 
Underwood,  of  Alabama,  did  not  view  the  matter  from  this 
generous  aspect. 

"There  is  no  occasion,"  Mr.  Underwood  said,  "for  a  legisla- 
tive spasm.  The  reports  of  the  situation  in  Martinique  may  be 
exaggerated.  Some  official  report  should  be  received  before  action 
is  taken."  • 

Representative  Payne,  of  New  York,  urged  upoii  Mr.  Under- 
wood to  withdraw  his  objection.  He  pointed  out  that  it  was  nec- 
essary to  act  at  once.  Mr.  Underwood  persisted,  however,  and  the 
bill,  under  the  rules,  had  to  go  over  without  action  until  Monday. 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  145 

Early  on  Monday,  the  12th,  the  French  Ambassador  called  on 
President  Roosevelt  to  convey  to  him  President  Loubet's  reply  to 
his  message  of  sympathy,  and  to  ask  Mr.  Roosevelt  to  assist  in 
extending  succor  to  the  people  of  Martinique.  The  direct  result 
of  the  Ambassador's  visit  was  the  transmission  of  a  message  to 
Congress  by  President  Roosevelt,  asking  that  $500,000  be  appro- 
priated for  the  purchase  of  relief  supplies  and  the  expense  of  their 
transportation  and  distribution.  The  President's  message  was  as 
follows  : 

THE    president's    MESSAGE. 

"  To  the  'Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  : 

'  One  of  the  greatest  calamities  in  history  has  fallen  upon  our 
neighboring  Island  of  Martinique.  The  Consul  of  the  United 
States  at  Guadeloupe  has  telegraphed  from  Fort  de  France,  under 
date  of  yesterday,  that  the  disaster  is  complete  ;  that  the  city  of 
St.  Pierre  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  that  the  American  Consul  and 
his  family  have  perished.  He  is  informed  that  30,000  people  have 
lost  their  lives,  and  that  50,000  are  homeless  and  hungry  ;  that 
there  is  urgent  need  of  all  kinds  of  provisions,  and  that  the  visit  of 
vessels  for  the  work  of  supply  and  rescue  is  imperatively  required. 

"  The  Government  of   France,  while  expressing  their  thanks 

for  the  marks  of  sympathy  which  have  reached  them  from  America, 

inform  us  that  Fort  de  France  and  the  entire  Island  of  Martinique 

are  still  threatened.     They,  therefore,  request  that,  for  the  purpose 

of  rescuitig  the  people  who  are  in  such  deadly  peril  and  threatened 

with   starvation,  the  Government  of  the  United   States  may  send, 

as   soon   as   possible,  the   means   of    transporting    them   from   the 

stricken  island.      The    Island  of   St.   Vincent,  and,  perhaps,  others 

in   that  region  are  also  seriously  menaced  by  the  calamity  which 

has  taken  so  appalling  a  form  in  Martinique. 
10 


14^^)  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 

"  I  have  directed'  the  departments  of  the  Treasury,  of  War 
and  of  the  Navy  to  take  such  measures  for  the  reHef  of  these  stric- 
ken people  as  He  within  the  executive  discretion,  and  I  earnestly 
commend  this  case  of  unexampled  disaster  to  the  generous  con- 
sideration of  the  Congress.  For  this  pupose  I  recommend  that  an 
appropriation  of  $500,000  be  made,  to  be  immediately  availing. 

"  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
"White  House,  Washington,  May  12,  1902." 

CONGRESS    ACTS    PROMPTLY. 

After  the  message  was  received  in  the  House  Mr.  Hemenway 
presented  the  Senate  bill  for  the  relief  of  sufferers  by  the  volcanic 
disaster  in  the  French  West  Indies,  with  a  substitute  unanimously 
recommended  by  the  Committee  on  Appropriations,  increasing 
the  appropriation  from  $100,000  to  $200,000. 

Mr.  Hemenway  said  this  action  was  taken  by  the  committee 
in  view  of  the  message  from  the  President  recommending  that 
$500,000  be  appropriated.  Generous  contributions  were  being 
made  by  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  the  committee  be- 
lieved that  $200,000  would  be  suf^cient,  at  least  for  the  present. 
Should  it  prove  to  be  insufficient  he  had  no  doubt  Congress  would 
increase  the  amount.  But  prompt  action  was  necessary  if  the 
people  to  be  affected  were  to  be  relieved  and  rescued  at  all. 

Mr.  Underwood,  who  had  checked  legislation  on  this  subject 
on  Saturday,  again  expressed  his  objection  to  the  proposed  legis- 
lation. Meiribers  did  not  stand  in  the  House  to  legislate  upon 
their  sympathies,  or  upon  their  heartstrings.  The  suftering 
people,  victims  of  the  recent  disaster,  were  subjects  of  the  great 
and  powerful  Republic  of  France,  a  nation  whose  proud  boast 
had  always   been    that  it  was  able  to  take  care  of  its  own  people. 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITFD  STATES  147 

Congress  had  no  right  to  be  generous  with  the  money  of  the 
people  whom  it  represented. 

Mr.  McRae  said  he  was  glad  to  believe  that  the  people  of  the 
United  States  were  willing  that  Congress  should  not  only  express 
their  sympathy  with  suffering,  but  that  they  were  willing  that 
Congress  should  extend  the  proposed  relief.  He  hoped  that 
the  bill  would  be  passed  unanimously,  but  if  that  could  not  be  done, 
that  it  should  be  passed  speedily. 

Mr.  Livingston  said  that  it  had  been  the  practice  of  the 
United  States  ever  since  the  republic  was  established,  to  extend 
aid  to  the  suffering,  even  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
he  did  not  believe  that  that  policy  would  now  be  reversed. 

The  bill  was  passed — 196  to  9.  The  negative  votes  were  cast 
by  Messrs.  Clayton  of  Alabama,  Burgess  and  Lanham  of  Texas, 
Gaines,  Moon  and  Snodgrass  of  Tennessee,  Tate  of  Georgia, 
Underwood  of  Alabama,  and  Williams  of  Mississippi. 

Soon  after  the  bill  was  passed  the  Senate  received  a  message 
from  the  House  announcing  the  passage  by  that  body  of  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  Senate  bill  for  the  relief  of  the  citizens  of  the  French 
West  Indies,  increasing  the  appropriation  from  $100,000  to  200,000. 
The  substitute  was  laid  before  the  Senate  and  was  immediately 
passed.  Mr.  Cullom  referred  to  the  President's  message  recom- 
mending an  appropriation  of  $500,000  and  said  that  the  Committee 
on  Foreign  Relations,  to  which  the  message  was  referred,  would 
report  on  it  the  next  day.  It  was  decided  at  a  subsequent  session  to 
await  the  action  of  the  cities  and  the  results  of  the  appropriation 
made  before  increasing  it.  If  found  necessary  there  would  be  no 
hesitancy  in  voting  the  sum  suggested  by  the  President. 

Anticipating  the  passage  of  the  bill,  the  War  and  Navy 
Departments  completed  their  relief  arrangements  early  in  the  day. 


I4S  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Officers  were  designated  to  take  charge  of  the  distribution  of  sup- 
pHes  by  the  War  Department,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
issued  the  necessary  orders  to  the  Dixie,  then  in  New  York  harbor, 
to  take  supplies  on  board  and  sail  with  all  dispatch  to  the  West 
Indies. 

RELIEF    PREPARATIONS    COMPLETED    EARLY. 

Assistant  General  Corbin,  Quartermaster  General  Ludington, 
Commissary  General  Weston  and  Surgeon  General  Sternberg 
were  charged  by  Secretary  Root  with  the  arrangement  of  that  part 
of  the  relief  measures  pertaining  to  the  War  Department.  After  a 
few  minutes'  consultation,  official  orders  were  drafted  for  the  cruid- 
ance  of  the  three  supply  departments,  giving  the  scheme  of  distri- 
bution as  follows  : 

Three  medical  officers,  with  ^5,000  worth  of  medical  stores, 
etc.;  one  subsistence  officer,  with  $70,000  in  stores,  consisting  of 
rice,  dried  fish,  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  canned  soups,  condensed  cream, 
salt,  pepper  and  vinegar  ;  one  officer  of  the  quartermaster's  depart- 
ment,with  $20,000  worth  of  clothing  supplies  for  men,  women  and 
children.  The  orders  directed  that  these  officers  and  stores  be 
sent  on  the  Dixie,  to  be  distributed  at  such  points  as  might  be  desig- 
nated by  the  navy  officer  in  command  of  the  Dixie  under  instruc- 
tions given  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

The  medical  officers  were  to  render  such  medical  aid  as  might 
be  in  their  power  in  addition  to  the  distribution  of  medical  supplies. 
Rear  Admiral  Bradford  also  suggested  the  possible  need  of  fresh 
water  in  Martinique,  in  view  of  the  danger  of  the  drinking  water 
being  rendered  useless  through  impregnation  with  sulphur.  The 
war  water-barges  at  Key  West  and  Norfolk  were  capable  of  convey- 
ing large  quantities.  Subsequent  advices  from  the  island,  however, 
indicated  that  this  was  not    necessary,  as  the   island  water  was  not 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  149 

spoiled.  Consul  Ayme,  of  Guadeloupe,  had  made  his  way  to  Fort 
de  France  on  the  French  cruiser  Suchet,  and  was  prepared  to  keep 
the  Government  advised  of  the  needs  of  the  islanders  and  the  pfen- 
eral  state  of  affairs.  The  Dixie  sailed  on  the  14th,  deeply  laden 
with  relief  stores. 

CARGO    OF    THE    DIXIE. 

A  memorandum,  prepared  by  Commissary  General  Weston, 
shows  that  the  commissary  supplies  sent  to  Martinique  and  St. 
Vincent  cost  $59,404,  and  weighed  900  tons,  equal  to  [,800,000 
pounds.  Allowing  one  pound  to  the  ration,  this  quantity  would 
well  furnish  subsistence  for  thirty-six  days  for  50,000  people. 
Among  the  articles  provided  were  rice,  bread.  Hour,  bacon,  codfish, 
baking  powder,  currant  jelly,  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  vinegar,  salt,  pepper, 
ham,  cans  of  milk,  chicken  soup  and  beef  soup. 

The  War  Department  was  advised  by  Colonel  Buchanan, 
commanding  the  military  forces  in  Porto  Rico,  that  the  steamer 
Sterling  had  sailed  from  San  Juan  with  subsistence  stores  of  every 
kind  and  also  clothing.  The  latter  includes  blankets,  coats,  trousers, 
underclothing,  shoes,  stockings  and  hats.  These  supplies  were 
taken  from  the  army  stores  at  Porto  Rico,  and  would  be  immedi- 
ately replaced. 

A  meeting  called  by  the  American  Chamber  of  Commerce  in 
Paris  on  the  14th  of  May,  raised  over  12,000  francs  of  relief  funds 
in  a  few  minutes,  and  aside  from  the  funds  raised  throughout 
Prance,  contributions  were  made  by  the  Pope,  by  ex-President 
Kruger,  by  officials  of  London,  and  by  citizens  of  Berlin,  the  town 
council  of  that  city  recommending  a  civic  donation  of  40,000  marks. 
It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  principal  cities  of  the  United 
States  were  similarly  active  in  the  good  work  of  beneficence,  each 
adding  an  ample  quota  to  the  much-needed  supply. 


150  SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Later  action  by  the  benevolent  in  Europe  included  subscrip- 
tions of  25,000  lire  ($5,000)  by  the  King  of  Italy,  and  ^5,000 
($25,000)  subscribed  in  London  to  the  Mansion  House  Relief 
Fund,  of  which  sum  the  Bank  of  England  subscribed  ^1,000  and 
the  Corporation  of  London  ^500.  This  was  subsequently  much 
increased.  Large  sums  were  contributed  by  the  generous  in 
France,  amounting  to  nearly  $300,000.  The  Government  of  the 
Netherlands  ordered  the  Dutch  warship  Konigin  Regentin  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  Island  of  Cura9Da  (Dutch  West  Indies)  to  the  Island 
of  Martinique,  at  full  speed,  to  assist  the  sufferers  from  the  Mont 
Pelee  outbreak.  Both  Chambers  of  the  States  General  (Parlia- 
ment) passed  resolutions  expressing  sympathy  with  France.  Queen 
Wilhelmina  contributed   2,000  florins  ($820)  to  the  relief  fund. 

IN    THE    HOUSE    OF    COMMONS 

In  the  English  House  of  Commons  the  Government  leader,  A. 
J.  Balfour  said  :  "  We  have  not  taken  account  of  the  most  sym- 
pathetic manner  in  which  the  United  States  Government  have,  to 
use  their  own  language,  '  expressed  their  desire  to  share  in  the  work 
of  aid  and  rescue.'  As  to  the  manner  in  which  this  generous  offer 
can  best  be  accepted,  the  Government  of  the  Windward  Isles  has 
already  been  consulted." 

Mr.  Balfour  referred  to  the  opening  of  the  relief  fund  at  the 
Mansion  House  by  the  Lord  Mayor,  and  said  that  Canada,  Jamaica 
and  the  other  West  Indian  Islands,  and  the  Island  of  Mauritius,  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  had  promised  to  help  with  money  and  goods. 

"  I  have  no  doubt,"  he  added,  "that  the  other  colonies  will  be 
equally  generous.  In  addition,  the  Governor  of  the  Windward  Is- 
lands has  been  authorized  to  spend  whatever  sums  are  necessary, 
and  the  Imperial  Government  is  prepared  to  supplement  the  con- 
tributions to  any  amount  necessary." 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  151 

The  immediate  and  generous  action  of  the  United  States  won 
ample  recognition  in  France,  testified  to  by  a  long  telegram  re- 
ceived May  14  by  M.  Jules  Cambon,  the  French  Ambassador,  and 
transmitted  by  him  to  Secretary  of  State  John  Hay  in  the  follow- 
ing words  : — 

"  Embassy  of  the  French  Republic,  Washington,  May  14, 
1902. — Mr,  Secretary  of  State  :  I  have  just  received  the  following 
telegram  from  my  Government:  'The  President  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  French  Republic,  deeply  moved  by  the  sympathy 
evinced  by  the  President,  the  Congress  and  the  nation  of  the 
United  States  toward  the  sufferers  of  the  earthquake  in  Martin- 
ique, charge  you  to  be  their  interpreter  in  expressing  the  gratitude 
cherished  by  the  entire  French  nation  for  their  generous  assistance, 
the  remembrance  of  which  shall  live  forever.' 

"  It  is  my  great  honor,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  that  I  should  be 
called  to  tender  to  you  the  thanks  of  France  for  all  that  the  United 
States  is  doing  on  this  sorrowful  occasion,  and  I  should  be  infinitely 
obliged  to  you  if  you  would  convey  this  expression  to  all  the  Gov- 
ernment and  Congress  who  have  given  evidence  of  such  noble 
sentiments  of  humanity. 

"  Be  pleased  to  accept,  Mr.  Secretary  of  State,  the  assurances 
of  my  high  consideration.  "Jules  Cambon." 

The  Paris  Temps,  in  an  editorial  of  date  of  May  13,  said  rela- 
tive to  the  appropriation  by  Congress  :  "  This  manifestation  of 
American  sympathy,  on  the  eve  of  the  Rochambeau  fetes,  tends  to 
draw  tighter  the  already  close  ties  uniting  the  two  Republics,  and 
to  constitute  a  guarantee  of  peace  and  of  fraternity  of  the  two 
nations." 

On  the  2 1  St  a  telegram  was  received  from  Captain  Gallagher, 
of  the  Dixie,  which  had  reached  Fort  de  France,  to  the  effect  that 


I.S2 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


supplies  were  on  hand  sufficient  for  eight  weeks,  that  all  which 
urgency  demanded  had  been  done  and  nothing  further  could  be  sug- 
gested. Part  of  the  cargo  of  the  Dixie  was  unloaded,  and  the 
vessel  proceeded  with  the  remainder  to  St.  Vincent,  where  the  dis- 
tress was  reported  to  be  greater  than  in  Martinique. 

Consul  Ayme  cabled  the  Department  of  State  from  Fort  de 
France,  Martinique,  that  he  had  visited  Admiral  Servan  on  the 
French  flagship  Tage,  and  that  the  Admiral  requested  him  to 
officially  inform  the  Government  of  the  United  States  that  there 
were  now  sufficient  supplies  in  the  colony  to  feed  every  one  need- 
ing help  for  four  months,  and  therefore  suggested  that  nothing 
further  be  sent.  This  suggestion  was  accompanied  by  an  expres- 
sion of  thanks.  A  similar  message  had  been  sent  to  the  French 
Government. 

OVERABUNDANT    SUPPLIES 

The  fact  seemed  to  be  that  the  work  of  relief  had  surpassed 
the  needs  of  the  sufferers.  Captain  Crabbe,  of  the  Potomac,  cabled 
to  that  effect  on  the  20th,  saying  that  the  report  of  the  distress  was 
exaggerated,  the  great  multitude  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  place 
having  been  killed.  Advices  to  the  same  effect  having  come  from 
Consul  Ayme,  as  above  stated,  President  Roosevelt  suggested  that 
the  receipt  of  subscriptions  from  citizens  should  be  suspended  until 
further  information  had  been  received. 

Sir  Robert  Llewellyn,  Governor  of  the  British  Windward  Is- 
lands, cabled  to  London  to  the  same  effect  as  regarded  St.  Vincent, 
his  message  stating  :  "  All  immediate  wants  now  supplied.  I  have 
ordered  timber  for  the  construction  of  houses  through  his  Majesty's 
Ambassador  at  Washington  and  the  Governor-General  of  Canada, 
at  a  cost  of  ^^5,000.  Please  instruct  those  officers  to  co-operate  and 
arrange  for  the  payment. 


SYMPATHY  AND  AID  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES .         153 

"  The  question  of  the  resettlement  of  the  people  is  under  con- 
sideration. One  of  the  new  townships  is  already  settled.  In  my 
estimation  ^,'50,000  will  enable  us  to  support  all  the  sufferers  for 
six  months  and  rehouse  them  in  new  localities.  The  sufferings  of 
the  wounded  from  burns  are  very  terrible.  Sixty  deaths  have 
occurred  in  the  hospital," 

The  suspension  of  relief  was,  of  course,  provisional.  The 
renewed  activity  of  the  volcanoes  rendered  it  possible  that  new 
disasters  might  occur,  and  fresh  funds  be  needed.  Rut  the  gen- 
erous readiness  with  which  the  United  States  had  responded  to 
the  call  for  aid,  and  the  equally  generous  assistance  offered  by 
the  warm-hearted  in  other  lands,  rendered  it  certain  that  all  suffer- 
ing other  than  that  directly  due  to  the  volcano  would  be  relieved, 
and  that  the  people  of  the  North  would  not  rest  from  their  work  of 
benevolence  while  any  suffering  remained  in  the  stricken  islands  of 
the  South. 


CHAPTER  IX 

A  Vivid  Picture  of  the  Last  Day  of  St.  Pierre 

IN  former  chapters  the  destruction  of  St.  Pierre  has  been 
described  and,  as  it  were,  photographed,  in  the  graphic  words 
of  several  of  the  few  survivors  of  that  dread  catastrophe  ; 
those  who  saw  it  from  the  ships  in  the  harbor  and  Hved  to  tell  the 
tale  of  their  terrible  experience.  It  is  only  through  accounts  like 
these,  of  those  who  actually  went  through  the  horrors  of  that 
dreadful  day,  that  a  satisfactory  conception  of  the  disaster  can  be 
obtained,  and  it  is  proposed  in  the  present  chapter  to  add  the  nar- 
rative of  another  observer,  whose  story  effectively  supplements 
those  already  given.  We  do  this  with  the  assurance  that  our 
readers  will  be  gratified  to  read  all  the  important  accounts  by  eye- 
witnesses of  the  most  extraordinary  volcanic  event  of  our  age. 

A    DRAMATIC    SCENE  . 

Two  French  travellers  of  rank,  Comte  de  Fitz-James  and 
Baron  Fontenilliat,  who  were  on  their  return  from  a  business  trip 
to  French  Guiana,  had  the  fortune  to  witness  the  eruption  and  the 
overwhelming  of  the  city  from  a  boat  in  the  harbor,  and  the  stor)- 
of  their  experience,  as  given  by  the  Comte,  is  one  of  thrilling  inter- 
est. As  it  is- the  only  narrative  that  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
disaster  in  its  most  striking  particulars,  we  append  it  in  full.  After 
some  preliminary  words,  the  Comte  proceeds  : 

"  Gustave  Dore,  in  his  most  ecstatic  delirium,  never  conceived 
anything  so  dramatic  and  so  awe-inspiring  as  was  St.  Pierre  after  it 
154 


THE  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE  155 

had  been  desolated  by  the  whirlwind  of  fire  that  swept  down  upon 
it  from  Mont  Pelee.  It  was  more  than  a  city  of  the  dead.  It  was 
an  inferno,  magnified  and  realized.  I  looked  upon  it,  and  the 
vision  was  such  that  its  impression  will  never  be  removed  from  my 
mind. 

"  From  the  depths  of  the  earth  came  rumblings,  an  awful 
music  which  cannot  be  described.  I  called  my  companion's  name, 
and  my  voice  echoed  back  at  me  from  a  score  of  angles.  All  the 
air  was  filled  with  the  acrid  vapors  that  had  belched  from  the 
mouth  of  the  volcano.  I  had  been  beaten  down  by  the  force  of 
the  explosion  until  I  was  too  weary  to  realize  the  miracle  that  had 
left  Baron  de  Fontenilliat  and  myself  among  the  few  survivors,  and 
the  only  ones  who  were  permitted  to  force  our  way  into  St.  Pierre 
as  far  as  the  still  living  flames  would  permit.  Only  now  my  mind 
seems  to  have  returned  to  its  normal  condition,  and  I  look  back 
upon  that  Thursday  morning  and  the  hours  that  immediately  fol- 
lowed as  upon  some  fearful  nightmare. 

"  From  a  boat  in  the  roadstead  in  front  of  St.  Pierre,  Baron 
Fontenilliat  and  I  witnessed  the  cataclysm  that  came  upon  the 
city.  We  saw  the  shipping  destroyed  by  a,  breath  of  fire.  We 
saw  the  cable  ship  Grappler  keel  over  under  the  whirlwind,  and 
sink  as  though  drawn  down  into  the  waters  of  the  harbor  by  some 
force  from  below.  The  Roraima  was  overcome  and  burned  at 
anchor.  The  Roddam,  a  trifle  more  fortunate,  was  able  to  escape 
like  a  stricken  moth  which  crawls  from  a  flame  that  has  burned 
its  wings  and  left  it  a  cripple  to  suffer  until  death  relieves. 

"  Our  own  daneer  was  Sfreat,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
bravery  and  the  courage  of  the  Baron  I  would  have  perished  as 
miserably  as  did  the  thousands  of  wretches  ashore.  I  was  stunned, 
unable    to    lift   a  hand   to   assist    myself.      Baron   de    Fontenilliat 


156  THE  LAST  DAY  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

dragged  me  from  the  boat  into  the  water,  where  lie  supported  me 
until  I  was  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  able  to  care  for  myself. 

"If  you  will  permit  me  to  relate  the  circumstances  that  took 
us  to  Martinique  and  to  St.  Pierre  in  time  to  be  witnesses  of  this 
great  tragedy,  I  shall  give  as  best  I  can  the  picture  which  will  never 
leave  my  memory. 

"  Baron  de  F"ontenilliat  and  I  had  been  in  French  Guiana  on  a 
business  trip  relating  to  some  mining  property  in  which  we  are 
interested.  It  became  necessary  for  us  to  leave  Cayenne  before  the 
regular  mail  steamer,  and  we  hired  a  sailing  vessel  to  transport  us 
to  Martinique.  It  happened  that  when  we  left  Cayenne  there  was 
something  of  a  scare  prevailing  because  of  an  outbreak  of  yellow 
fever.  For  that  reason  we  were  not  certain  what  would  be  our 
reception  in  Martinique,  and  instead  of  going  at  once  to  Fort  de 
France  or  to  St.  Pierre,  we  decided  to  go  to  Carbet,  a  suburb  in 
village  a  little  way  outside  of  St.  Pierre,  there  to  remain  until  the 
quarantine  regulations  were  complied  with.  Carbet  is  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  bay  from  Mont  Pelee  and  there  some  of  the  wealth- 
iest, as  well  as  some  of  the  poorest,  citizens  made  their  homes. 

"  We  learned  upon  our  arrival  that  an  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee 
had  destroyed  a  part  of  the  village  of  Precheur,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  harbor.  That  was  the  eruption  of  May  3,  which  ruined  one 
of  the  best  sugar  factories  in  the  island,  killing  scores  of  workmen. 
We  made  immediate  arrang-ements  to  visit  the  scene  of  the  disas- 
ten  Two  negro  boatmen  were  employed  to  take  us  across  the  bay, 
and  it  was  the  fact  that  we  made  an  early  start  the  next  morning 
that  saved  our  lives. 

BOATING    IN    THE    HARBOR 

"After  breakfast,  we  were  in  the  boat  and  had  started  across 
to  Precheur  by  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  8  ;  having  arrived 


THE  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE  157 

on  the  island,  as  I  have  neglected  to  say,  the  previous  evening.  We 
had  no  thought  of  what  was  to  come.  Not  having  been  in  St. 
Pierre,  we  had  not  an  opportunity  to  share  the  panic  which  had 
been  caused  by  the  ugly  temper  betrayed  by  Mont  Pelee. 

"  It  was  such  a  morning  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  describe. 
Low  hanging  clouds  gave  the  scene  a  dismal  appearance,  and  this 
was  heightened  by  the  fine  volcanic  dust  which  filled  the  atmo- 
sphere, making  respiration  difficult.  This  dust  was  next  to  impal- 
pable. It  could  not  be  seen  as  it  floated  in  the  air,  but  it  settled  so 
rapidly  that  my  hand,  resting  upon  the  edge  of  the  boat,  was  cov- 
ered completely  in  less  than  three  minutes. 

"  As  we  made  our  way  across  the  water  we  more  than  half 
faced  Mont  Pelee,  which  was  throwing  off  a  heavy  cloud  of  smoke, 
steam  and  ashes.  No  flames  were  to  be  seen.  On  shore  the  inhab- 
itants were  making  their  way  about  the  water  front.  The  city  was 
to  our  right.  Small  craft  plied  about  the  harbor,  some  trading 
with  the  ships  that  were  at  anchor,  while  in  some  fishermen  were 
going  out  to  the  fishing  grounds,  just  off  Carbet. 

"  Leaving  shore,  we  first  passed  the  Roddam,  which  was  at 
quarantine,  a  fact  to  which  the  salvation  of  that  ship  was  due.  A 
little  further  out  in  the  roadstead  was  the  Roraima,  its  passengers 
on  deck  observing  the  laboring  of  the  volcano.  Still  further  off 
was  the  ill  fated  Grappler.  Then  there  were  several  sailing  ves- 
sels  at.  anchor. 

"  I  should  have  said  that  the  calm  of  the  morning  was  almost 
abnormal.  Not  a  ripple  was  to  be  seen  upon  the  face  of  the  sea. 
Not  a  breath  of  air  was  stirring,  which  made  it  more  difficult  for 
us  to  breathe.  But  in  spite  of  our  discomforts  we  v/ere  glad  that 
we  had'  made  the  trip,  as  it  was  an  opportunity  not  often  given  to 
man  to  see  a  volcano  in  active  eruption. 


158  THE  LAST  DAY  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

"  The  rumblings  from  the  bowels  of  the  mountain  were  majes- 
tic in  tone.  I  cannot  tell  you  just  how  they  sounded,  but  perhaps 
you  can  imagine  a  mighty  hand  playing  upon  the  strings  of  a  harp 
greater  than  all  the  world.  The  notes  produced  were  deep  and  full 
of  threatenings.  There  was  a  jarring  sensation,  and  every  now  and 
then  there  was  a  commotion  of  the  waters  that  caused  a  swell  with- 
out making  the  surface  break. 

"  Out  from  the  shore  put  a  small  launch  carrying  the  pennant 
of  Governor  Mouttet.  The  Governor  at  the  last  moment  had  real- 
ized that  the  situation  was  filled  with  a  terrible  danger.  He  was 
attempting  to  escape  with  his  family  and  a  few  friends.  I  had  com- 
mented to  Baron  de  Fontenilliat  upon  the  appearance  of  the  Gov- 
ernor's craft.  Neither  of  us  gave  to  the  incident  its  true  signi- 
ficance. [The  Governor,  as  after  evidence  proved,  was  too  late  in 
his  attempt  at  flight.] 

"  While  we  were  talking  there  came  an  explosion  that  was 
beyond  any  that  ever  before  happened.  I  can  only  liken  it  to  a 
shot  from  a  mammoth  cannon.  The  breath  of  fire  swept  down 
upon  the  city  and  water  front  with  all  of  the  force  that  could  have 
been  given  to  it  by  such  a  cannon.  Of  this  comparison  I  shall 
have  more  to  say  later.  For  the  present  it  will  do  to  add  that  the 
explosion  was  without  warning  and  that  the  effect  was  instantaneous. 
Cinders  were  shot  into  our  face  with  stinging  effect. 

"  The  air  was  filled  with  flame.  Involuntarily  we  raised  our 
hands  to  protect  our  faces.  I  noted  the  same  gesture  when  I  saw 
the  bodies  of  victims  on  shore  ;  arms  had  been  raised  and  the 
hands  were  extended  with  palms  outward,  a  gesture  that  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner  indicated  dread  and  horror. 

"  When  the  frightful  explosion  came,  our  two  boatmen  were 
either  thrown  from  the  boat  or  with  a  quick  impulse  they  sprang 


THE  LAST  DAY  OF  ST.  PIERRE  159 

overboard.  It  was  the  one  thing  to  do  to  save  their  Hves  ;  but, 
unfortunately  for  them,  they  lost  their  presence  of  mind  and. 
Instead  of  staying  by  the  side  of  the  boat,  they  swam  away  in  the 
direction  of  Precheur,  wl\ich  we  were  approaching  when  the 
disaster  came.  It  was  impossible  for  them  to  land  at  Precheur,  so 
they  were  compelled  to  put  back.  They  then  struck  out  across  the 
bay,  evidently  hoping  to  reach  Carbet.  We  saw  neither  of  them 
again,  and  I  have  no  doubt  they  were  drowned. 

"  My  brave  companion  had  the  same  impulse  that  actuated  the 
negroes.  He  sprang  into  the  water,  and  when  he  saw  that  I  did 
not  move  he  reached  up  and  catching  me  by  the  shoulder,  dragged 
me  from  the  boat.  I  was  stunned  at  first,  and,  though  it  was  not 
a  physical  injury,  I  could  not  move  of  my  own  volition  until  the 
cold  water  restored  my  senses.  It  was  thus  that  we  could  see  all 
that  happened  about  us. 

DESTRUCTION    OF    SHIPPING 

*'  The  Grappler  rushed  through  the  water  as  far  as  her 
anchor-cable  would  permit.  Then  she  seemed  to  rise  by  the  bow, 
and  when  she  settled  back  she  sank  almost  before  the  force  of  the 
explosion  had  spent  itself. 

"  The  Roraima  was  all  a  mass  of  flames  for  several  seconds. 
We  could  see  the  poor  wretches  aboard  of  her  rushing  about  in  a 
vain  attempt  to  escape  from  the  fire  that  enveloped  them.  Captain 
Muggah — or,  at  least,  I  suppose  that  it  was  he — made  an  attempt 
to  give  orders  to  the  maddened  crew.  Then  he  staggered  to  the 
railing  and  fell  overboard. 

"The  Roddam  was  also  overcome.  Her  gangway  was  over  the 
side.  Her  upper  works  were  wrecked,  but  by  heroic  effort  those  on 
board  were  able   to  let    slip    the    anchor    chain,  and,  after  many 


i6o  THE  LAST  DA  V  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

attempts,  the  ship  began  to  move.  She  Hterally  crawled  away.  It 
was  a  splendid  display  of  courage.  At  least  three  hours  elapsed 
after  the  explosion  before  the  Roddam  cleared  the  harbor. 
'  "  On  shore  all  was  aflame.  The  city  burned  with  a  terrible 
roar.  We  realized  that  the  inhabitants  had  all  died,  as  not  one 
was  to  be  seen  making  an  attempt  to  escape.  Not  a  cry  was  heard 
save  from  the  ships  that  were  in  the  harbor. 

"  Our  own  condition  was  desperate  in  the  extreme.  The  heat 
was  intense.  We  were  able  to  keep  our  faces  above  the  surface  of 
the  water  for  a  second  at  a  time  at  the  most.  We  would  take  a 
mouthful  of  air  and  then  sink  into  the  water  to  stay  there  until 
forced  to  come  to  the  surface  again.  This  lasted  only  about  three 
minutes.  After  that  we  were  able  to  float  by  the  side  of  the  boat, 
dipping  only  occasionally. 

"  The  water  beoan  to  ofet  so  warm  that  I  feared  we  had  es- 
(-aped  roasting  only  to  be  boiled  to  death.  In  reality  the  water 
did  not  eet  so  warm  as  to  be  uncomfortable.  That  at  the  surface 
was  many  degrees  warmer  than  that  a  foot  below. 

UNDER    BLACK    AND    YELLOW    CLOUDS 

"  When  we  gave  our  attention  to  the  panorama  that  was 
spread  before  us,  the  entire  city  of  St.  Pierre  was  mantled  by  a 
dense  black  cloud.  Our  eyes  could  not  penetrate  it,  but  it  lifted  a 
few  seconds,  revealing  below  it  a  second  cloud,  absolutely  distinct 
from  it.  The  second  cloud  was  yellow,  apparently  made  up  of  sul- 
phurous gases.  It  lifted  as  did  the  first,  both  rising  like  blankets, 
and  in  a  similar  manner  they  floated  away.  Then,  as  the  yellow 
cloud  lifted  from  the  earth,  we  saw  the  flames  devouring  the  city, 
from  which  all  show  of  life  had  disappeared,  dissipated  by  the 
magic  worked  by  Mont  Pelee. 


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INTERIOR  OF  A  STEAMSHIP  AT  ST.  PIERRE,  AFTER  THE  WHIRLWIND  OF  FIRE 


m  ^-^.^4 


ASH  DEPOSIT  FROM  ERUPTION,  ON  AN  ISLAND  NEIGHBORING  TO  MARTINIQUE 


A  SILK  COTTON  TREE 

A  wonderful  tree  of  the  Windward  Islands,  showing  how  Nature  provides  against  storms  and  hurricanes. 


VOLCANO  "  MAYON,"  IN  THE  HEMP-PRODUCING  DISTRICT  OF  LUZON 

This  is  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  volcano  in  the  world.     It  is  8,233  ft-et  high,  its  shape  is  a  perfect  cone  and 
its  crest  is  always  fiery.     It  has  indulged  in  several  destructive  eruptions 


ROUSSEAU  ROADSTKAD,  DOMINICA,  ONE  OF  THE  SMALL  ISLANDS  NEAR  MARTINIQUE 


Copyright,  1902,  by  Wm.  E.  Scull 

SEEKING  REFUGE  IN  THE   CATHEDRAL  AT   ST.   PIERRE 
The  Last  Refuge  from  Destruction,  yet  not  a  Refuge. 


THE  LAST  DAY  OF  ST.  PIERRE  i6i 

"  When  we  could  sustain  the  heat  that  filled  the  air  we  clamb- 
ered into  the  boat  and  rowed  back  to  Carbet.  The  Roddam  had 
just  gone  out  from  the  harbor,  the  Roraima  was  a  smoking  wreck, 
the  Grappler  had  disappeared  entirely,  and  little  was  to  be  seen  of 
the  other  craft. 

"  At  Carbet  we  found  the  village  absolutely  deserted.  Two 
portions  of  it  had  been  ruined.  That  which  was  down  by  the 
water's  edge  had  been  swept  by  the  great  wave  which  followed  the 
explosion.  I  have  neglected  to  refer  to  that  wave  before,  but  it 
was  of  terrific  force,  and  it  added  to  the  confusion  all  along  the 
shore.  Part  of  Carbet  had  been  struck  by  the  wave  of  fire  from 
the  volcano,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  village  was  left  uninjured. 

"  When  we  got  ashore  we  called  aloud,  and  only  the  echo  of 
our  voices  answered  us.  Our  fear  was  great,  but  we  did  not  know 
which  way  to  turn,  and  had  it  been  our  one  thought  to  escape 
we  would  not  have  known  how  to  do  so.  It  was  about  one 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  when  we  reached  shore.  Our  weariness 
was  beyond  description.  Sleep  was  the  one  thing  that  I  wanted, 
but  I  overcame  the  desire  and,  with  Baron  de  Fontenilliat,  set  off 
to  make  our  way  to  St.  Pierre,  hoping  that  we  might  still  render 
some  assistance  to  the  injured. 

SOLDIERS    DO    HEROIC    WORK 

"  Not  knowing  the  paths,  we  attempted  to  enter  the  city  from 
the  direction  travelled  by  the  blast  of  the  volcano.  That  brought 
us  to  the  flames  and  we  were  driven  back.  Then  we  went  further 
into  the  country,  and  so  happened  to  meet  two  soldiers  who  did 
work  of  as  heroic  a  nature  as  was  ever  accomplished  by  man. 

"  The  soldiers  had  been  in  camp  at  Colson,  far  back  from  St. 
Pierre,  but,  on  leave,  had  wandered  in  toward  the  city.  They  heard 
II 


i62  THE  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

the  explosion  and  rushed  down  from  the  hills  to  give  aid  where  it 
was  needed.  When  they  went  in  through  the  streets  it  was  at  the 
risk  of  their  lives.  They  were  the  only  ones  who  ventured  into  St, 
Pierre  that  afternoon.  They  came  upon  a  sailor  so  injured  that  he 
could  not  move.  Picking  him  up,  they  carried  him  back  out  of  the 
danger  zone.  They  left  him  on  a  couch  of  grass,  and  neither 
they  nor  we  ever  learned  what  was  his  fate.  It  is  probable  that  he 
died. 

"Again  entering  the  city,  these  two  heroes  found  five  women 
in  a  hut.  They  were  much  injured,  but  were  not  dead.  The  sol- 
diers gave  them  drink  and  put  food  within  their  reach,  and  then 
left  them,  promising  to  return  with  assistance  as  soon  as  possible. 
When  they  met  us  they  told  us  about  the  women,  and  Baron  de 
Fontenilliat  and  I  made  an  attempt  to  find  the  hut,  but  were  not 
successful  in  our  search. 

HOW    HEROISM    WAS    REWARDED 

"  Now,  to  show  the  folly  of  those  upon  whom  responsibility 
fell  in  that  hour  of  terrible  disaster,  I  may  say  that  when  those  two 
soldiers  reached  their  camp  they  were  sent  to  the  guard-house  for 
having  remained  away  after  hours.  They  told  of  the  five  suffering 
women,  and  their  officer  insisted  that  the  tale  had  been  arranged 
by  them  for  the  purpose  of  escaping  punishment.  They  were  kept 
under  guard  all  Thursday  night  and  all  of  the  next  day  and  the 
following  night, 

"  During  those  thirty-six  hours  the  two  soldiers  made  no  com- 
plaint of  their  own  treatment,  but  they  continued  to  beg  that  assist- 
ance be  sent  to  the  women  whom  they  had  left  so  badly  injured. 
Finally  their  plea  prevailed,  and  on  Saturday  they  were  permitted 
to  lead  a  rescue  party  to  St.  Pierre.  Then  their  story  was  fully 
verified.     One  of  the  women  was  still  alive.     She  told  how  the 


THF  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE  163 

soldiers  had  rescued  her  and  her  four  friends,  who  had  died  late 
Friday  night.  She  was  taken  to  Fort  de  France,  where  she  died 
a  few  days  later. 

"  Had  the  story  told  by  Valant  and  Tribul,  as  these  brave 
fellows  were  named,  been  acted  upon  when  first  given,  five  lives 
would  have  been  saved.  It  is  our  greatest  regret  that  we  were 
unable  to  find  the  hut  in  which  these  women  were  hidden.  But 
we  did  the  best  we  could.  After  we  learned  what  had  happened 
we  saw  that  the  record  of  these  two  men  was  not  blackened  by  the 
sentence  which  a  petty  offtcer  had  passed  upon  them.  When  they 
return  to  France  they  shall  be  my  guests. 

"  Our  shoes  were  burned  to  a  crisp,  but  we  plodded  about 
those  hills  as  lone  as  we  were  able  to  move.  Then  we  returned  to 
Carbet,  and  remained  there  that  night.  We  were  all  alone,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  next  mornino-  that  some  of  the  inhabitants 
returned.  We  remained  there,  doing  what  we  could,  until  Satur- 
day, when  we  walked  to  Fort  de  France.  There  we  remained 
until  Monday,  May  12,  when  we  returned  to  St.  Pierre  with  one 
of  the  official  relief  parties. 

"  It  was  on  Monday  that  we  took  pictures  of  the  disaster,  and 
also  that  we  met  Captain  McLean,  who  had  just  brought  the 
American  cruiser  Cmcmna^i  to  Ma.rtimque.  He  did  great  work,  as 
did  other  Americans. 

DEAD    BY    HER    BOX    OF    TOYS 

"  It  is  impossible  to  describe  even  in  the  most  faint  manner 
the  horrors  of  St.  Pierre.  There  were  some  things  that  can  be 
made  clear,  but  many  more  that  cannot  be  explained  by  anything 
known  to  human  reason. 

"  It  happened  that  one  of  the  first  bodies  found  by  the  party 
with  which  we  entered  St.  Pierre  on  Monday  wa:s  that  of  a  pretty 


1 64  THE  LAST  DA  V  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

little  girl  about  four  years  old.  She  sat  in  a  life-like  position  by 
the  side  of  a  box  containing  her  toys.  But  how  shall  we  explain 
the  fact  that  the  house  in  which  she  was  found  was  in  absolute  ruins, 
and,  instead  of  being  under  the  debris,  the  body  was  on  top  of  it  all  ? 
It  was  as  though  the  little  girl  and  her  box  of  toys  had  been  lifted 
into  the  air,  and,  after  the  building  had  fallen  into  ruins,  had  been 
dropped  back  to  earth. 

"  So  it  was  in  the  streets.  The  explosion  happened  just  before 
eight  o'clock.  It  was  a  feast  day.  Mass  was  called  for  eight  o'clock, 
and  many  were  on  their  way  to  the  cathedral.  All  of  these  had 
been  lifted  into  the  air,  and  after  the  ruins  had  fallen  the  bodies 
dropped  back. 

"  When  melinite  explodes  in  the  hands  of  a  man  it  is  always 
the  case  that  his  clothes  are  blown  from  his  body.  So  it  was  at 
St.  Pierre.  All  of  the  bodies  were  naked,  save  for  the  shoes. 
Moreover,  the  clothing  had  not  been  burned  off,  as  has  been  so 
often  reported.  The  only  bodies  touched  by  fire  were  those  that 
remained  where  the  houses  burned  after  the  explosion. 

TREES  TORN  UP  BV  THE  ROOTS 

"  We  saw  the  body  of  a  beautiful  young  woman.  Fire  had  not 
touched  her,  but  her  clothing  had  been  torn  from  her  body.  She 
rested  on  her  back,  and  under  her  was  just  a  scrap  of  her  under- 
wear, and  it  showed  that  it  had  been  torn,  and  not  burned.  This 
is  something  I  cannot  understand,  for  the  heat  was  intense. 

"  We  saw  great  stones  that  seemed  to  be  marvels  of  strength, 
but  when  touched  by  the  toe  of  a  boot  they  crumbled  into  impalp- 
able dust.  I  picked  up  a  bar  of  iron.  It  was  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  thick  and  three  feet  long.  It  had  been  manufactured  square 
and  then  twisted  so  as  to  give  it  greater  strength.     The  fire  that 


THE  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE  -  165 

came  down  from  Mont  Pelee  had  taken  from  the  iron  all  of  its 
strength  and  had  left  it  so  that  when  I  twisted  it  it  fell  into  fila- 
ments, like  so  much  broom  straw. 

"  Back  of  the  cathedral  was  the  savannah.  Great  trees  had 
been  torn  up  by  the  roots,  leaving  holes  twenty  feet  deep  and 
thirty  to  forty  feet  across.  Then  these  holes  had  been  filled  by  the 
ashes  that  poured  down  from  the  volcano.  Trees  were  cut  off  as 
though  by  a  mighty  knife  in  the  hands  of  a  giant  reaper.  Every- 
where were  banks  of  cinders  and  ashes. 

"  When  the  Baron  and  I  first  went  into  the  ruined  city  we 
were  too  awe-struck  to  speak.  Then  I  found  tongue,  and  I  called 
to  him.  His  name  echoed  back  to  us  from  a  score  of  standing 
walls.  All  about  us  were  bodies.  On  few  faces  was  to  be  seen 
that  peace  which  I  have  seen  mentioned  by  others.  I  believe  that 
almost  all  had  time  to  realize  what  was  upon  them,  but  they  did 
not  have  time  to  suffer.  Their  arms  were  outstretched,  as  I  have 
before  remarked.  The  hands  were  open  and  the  fingers  were 
spread.  It  was  a  common  gesture,  and  I  believe  that  it  was  the 
act  of  men  and  women  who  threw  up  their  arms  to  ward  off  a  blow 
which  they  knew  was  descending  upon  them. 

"  There  was  another  fact  which  has  not  been  remarked  upon 
as  it  deserves.  I  know  that  the  explosion  of  Mont  Pelee  was  not 
accompanied  by  anything  like  an  earthquake,  for  the  reason  that 
when  we  entered  St.  Pierre  we  found  the  fountains  all  flowing,  just 
as  though  nothing  had  happened.  They  continued  to  flow,  and 
are  flowing  still,  unless  destroyed  by  the  later  explosions. 

"  There  was  no  flow  of  lava.  It  was  all  ashes,  dust,  gas  and 
mud.  Therein  lies  another  fact  which  must  be  considered.  It 
should  be  remembered  when  discussing  this  catastrophe  that  the 
crater  that  sent  disaster  upon  St.  Pierre  was  not  at  the  crest  of  the 


1 66  -  THE  LAST  DAY  OF  ST.  PIERRE 

volcano.  The  old  crater  was  at  the  top,  and  it  was  filled  with  water, 
forming  a  pretty  lake.  The  first  eruption,  which  sent  destruction 
upon  Precheur,  was  from  a  crater  far  down  the  side  of  the  mountain. 
The  destruction  then  was  worked  by  mud. 

FORCED    OUT    THE    MOUNTAIN'S    SIDE. 

"  Now  the  water  in  that  lake  disappeared  a  little  before  the 
eruption  of  May  3.  There  had  been  constant  and  heavy  rains. 
Then  a  small  peak  of  the  mountain  fell  in  and  covered  the  crater 
from  which  the  hot  mud  had  been  pouring.  I  am  convinced  that 
that  fall  of  earth,  stones  and  water  closed  up  the  vent,  and  when 
the  pressure  on  the  inside  became  sufficient  it  forced  out  the  side 
of  the  mountain. 

"  It  is  a  fact  that  a  new  crater  formed,  and  it  pointed  in  the 
exact  direction  of  St.  Pierre.  That  crater  is  in  the  mountain  side, 
and  I  referred  to  it  when  I  said  that  the  explosion  was  like  that  of 
a  cannon.  It  was  aimed  at  St.  Pierre,  and  the  result  was  that  the 
hot  gas,  the  stones  and  the  boiling  mud  were  forced  down  upon  the 
city,  just  as  the  gas  is  forced  from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon. 

"  It  is  true  that  there  was  one  survivor  of  the  disaster — a  pris- 
oner who  was  confined  in  a  dungeon  far  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  He  was  released  four  days  after  the  destruction  of  St. 
Pierre,  and  after  he  had  suffered  the  tortures  of  the  damned.  It 
would  seem  that  he  might  have  been  left  at  liberty,  but  he  has  been 
returned  to  a  cell  in  the  prison  at  Morne  Rouge.  I  was  told  about 
the  prisoner  by  a  priest,  who  assured  me  that  the  disaster  had  fallen 
upon  St.  Pierre  as  a  direct  act  of  Providence,  and  as  punishment 
because  the  inhabitants  were  wicked  and  did  not  attend  church  as 
they  should  have  done. 


THE  LAST  DA  Y  OF  ST.  PIERRE 


167 


"  I  wish  to  refer  to  the  action  of  the  authorities  who  assured 
the  inhabitants  that  nothing  was  to  be  feared  from  Mont  Pelee. 
Had  the  opposite  course  been  taken  many  would  have  escaped. 
But  the  assurance  of  safety  was  given,  and  as  a  result  the  daily 
paper  published  in  St.  Pierre  the  day  previous  to  the  destruction  of 
the  city  contained  a  long  editorial  intended  to  lessen  the  panic. 
That  editorial  concluded  with  this  expression  :  '  Where  then,  can 
one  be  more  secure  than  in  St.  Pierre  ?' 

"  Looting  was  carried  on  in  St.  Pierre  from  the  moment  that 
men  dared  to  venture  back  into  the  city.  When  we  were  there 
on  Monday,  May  12,  we  saw  many  skulkers,  who  were  robbing  the 
dead.  The  action  of  the  authorities  was  not  all  that  might  have 
been  desired.      More  of  this  will  be  said  when  we  reach  Paris. 

"  Of  supplies  there  are  now  enough  to  make  famine  impossible. 
All  the  world  seemed  to  rise  with  an  impulse  of  generosity.  Pro- 
visions were  taken  to  the  island  by  every  ship  that  arrived  there. 
The  refugees  were  fed  better  than  they  were  before  the  disaster 
happened." 


CHAPTER  X. 

St.  Pierre  Before  and  After  Its  Fall. 

WE  owe  to  a  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Herald  the  fol- 
lowing eloquent  description  of  the  state  of  affairs  in 
St.  Pierre  during  the  week  preceding  its  destruction : 

"It  is  not  so  very  long  ago  since  I  visited  this  poor  St.  Pierre 
— this  now  city  of  the  dead.  It  had,  I  am  told,  undergone  but  few 
changes  until  the  coming  of  that  frightful  day  which  changed  it  so 
utterly. 

"  To  say  that  St.  Pierre  was  the  most  picturesque  of  West 
Indian  cities  is  to  say  too  much  ;  to  say  merely  that  it  was  a  pretty 
place  is  to  say  too  little.  Where  now  is  all  aching  desolation,  a 
chaos  of  ruined  walls,  blackened  stumps  of  trees  and  sickening 
stench,  there  basked  in  summer  sunshine  a  little  city  splashed 
throughout  with  vivid  color — red -tiled  roofs  cutting  sharp  lines  on 
walls  of  creamy  white,  of  yellow  and  orange  and  bird's-eye  blue, 
mingled  with  the  green  of  tropic  verdure.  Built  on  a  long  undu- 
lation which  sloped  to  the  sea,  where  it  clustered  in  a  riot  of  color 
near  the  shore,  its  suburban  spots  could  be  picked  out  here  and 
there  along  the  flanking  spurs  and  foothills  which  roll  from  Pelee's 
base,  that  great  volcanic  bulk  whose  crest  is  ever  shrouded  in  a  veil 
of  clouds. 

MAY    OPENS    ON    ST.    PIERRE 

*'  Over  the  doomed  city  the  morning  of  May  i  broke  in  miracle- 
like splendor,  skies  bright  and  blue,  and  foliage  washed  to  a  fresher 
green  by  a  hard  rain  which  had  swept  over  the  island  the  preceding 

1 68 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  169 

night.  But  it  was  the  last  fair  day  that  St.  Pierre  was  to  know. 
Its  light-hearted  folk  had  hardly  awoke  to  that  jocund  morn  before 
long-slumbering  Pelee  gave  signs  of  its  self-awakening  from  its  half 
century  of  sleep. 

"  The  marketplace,  the  first  section  of  the  city  to  show  life 
when  a  West  Indian  town  awakes,  was  filling  with  venders  and  pur- 
chasers when  the  first  mutter  of  the  sleeping  giant  was  heard — a 
deep-toned,  jarring  growl,  which  instantly  blanched  the  faces  of  all 
who  heard,  for  those  bred  in  the  shadow  of  the  volcano  had  long 
since  learned  to  dread  its  wrath,  and,  growing  up,  these  in  turn  had 
taught  to  other  generations  the  malevolence  of  that  giant  bulk. 
Startled  eyes  were  turned  to  the  gloomy  mountain  and  were  reas- 
sured to  see  it  still  quiet  so  far  as  vision  went,  for  its  top  was  hid- 
den in  a  white  mist,  and  there  was  no  sign  of  boiling  lava  and  no 
fall  of  hurtling  rocks. 

"  Those  who  by  chance  were  in  the  city  that  morning,  and 
who,  by  far  luckier  hazard,  were  out  of  it  before  its  fall,  tell  of  how 
short-lived  the  first  fright  was  and  how  quickly  the  mercurial  popu- 
lation regained  its  buoyant  spirits.  Some  there  were  who  looked 
grave  when  ashes  white  and  fine  as  powdered  magnesia  began  to 
sift  from  out  the  great  cloud  which  hung  over  Pelee's  crest,  but  it 
seems  that  none  thought  connecting  these  myriads  of  floating  par- 
ticles with  the  deep,  muflled  rumble  which  had  just  been  heard  ; 
none  to  trace  the  one  to  the  other — the  effect  to  the  cause.  Their 
minds  were  not  grooved  to  such  analysis  ;  they  were  too  simple, 
too  West  Indian  for  that.  Sufficient  that  the  rumble  had  gone. 
As  for  that  sifting  of  fine  ashes  which  got  into  the  nose  and  eyes 
and  made  one  sneeze  and  cough,  quien  sabe  ? 

"St.  Pierre  was  gay  that  night  of  May  i.  The  municipal 
band  gave    music  in    the    plaza,    as   was    its   wont    on    Thursday 


I70  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

evenings.  This  band-night  was  the  one  occasion  when  youths  and 
maids  might  mingle  in  pubhc,  and  the  young  gallants  and  mademoi- 
selles, promenading  around  the  square  under  the  watchful  eyes  of 
fathers  and  mothers  and  duennas,  talked  lightly  of  Pelee  and  that 
whitening  fall.  Up  near  Morne  Rouge,  abode  of  St.  Pierre's  well- 
to-do,  there  was  a  lawn  party  that  evening,  which  carried  its  gayety 
far  into  the  night — zitzas  tinkling  in  the  tropic  air,  and  mantilla- 
draped  girls  dancing  in  the  moonlight  to  the  click  of  castanets. 

A    DAY    OF    EVIL    OMEN 

"  Friday,  day  of  the  evil  omen,  dawned  over  St.  Pierre.  It 
was  made  sombre  by  a  thunderstorm,  which  brooded  over  the 
mountain,  and  from  whose  dark  clouds  came  intermittent  flashes 
of  lightning.  The  nervous  started  at  every  thunderclap,  and  anx- 
iously asked  one  another  if  that  was  not  Mont  Pelee,  while  others 
sought  to  trace  the  blinding  flashes  to  their  source,  to  see  if  they 
were  really  the  mere  play  of  lightning,  or  were  volcanic  blazes  from  the 
timeworn  crater,  which  many  believed,  and  all  hoped,  was  long  ago 
extinct.  Then  a  heavy  mist  settled  over  the  city  and  its  surround- 
ings, and  under  its  depressing  influence  the  day  wore  itself  to  a 
close. 

"Saturday,  May  3!  Just  five  little  days  to  obliteration,  to 
death,  utter,  wholesale,  sudden  and  tragic  !  And  yet  St.  Pierre 
went  forth  that  day  to  carnival  doings,  local  celebration  in  honor  of 
something  or  somebody.  Facts  are  meager  as  to  the  life  of  that 
day  and  of  the  ones  that  followed,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
none  survived  the  horror  that  was  so  soon  to  come.  But  there 
were  some  who  had  spent  days  in  the  city  just  previous  to  the 
tragedy — some  who  had  left  it  only  a  scant  half  hour  before  the 
holocaust. 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  171 

"  Grievincr  for  their  own  lost  dead  and  with  nerves  unstrunof 
by  the  narrowness  of  their  own  escape,  it  may  be  that  their  over- 
wrought minds  are  coining  visions  now,  but  these  tell  earnestly  of 
a  column  of  smoke  which  arose,  black  as  a  pall,  from  Pelee's  white 
shroud,  to  rear  its  billows  of  crape  into  the  form  of  a  great  upended 
coffin.  However  that  may  be,  there  is  evidence  that  all  festival 
gayety  ceased  when  showers  of  pebbles  began  to  rattle  over  the  city, 
with  now  and  then  a  fall  of  sand,  whose  grains  were  hot  to  the 
touch,  despite  their  long  flight  through  the  air. 

IN    MORE    SOBER    HUMOR 

"  St.  Pierre,  it  is  now  said,  was  in  a  more  sober  humor  that 
evening  than  it  had  been  within  the  memory  of  those  who  tell  dis- 
jointedly  the  tale  of  the  days  that  ushered  in  its  doom.  And  when 
on  the  next  morning — Sunday,  that  was — another  growling  note 
was  heard  from  Pelee  and  a  small  river  of  hot,  black  mud,  touched 
here  and  there  with  red,  was  seen  to  come  snaking  down  from  out 
the  mists  screening  Pelee's  summit  to  cascade  over  a  hundred-foot 
precipice,  and  then  to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance  until  it 
swirled  about  the  Guerin  factory,  setting  that  building  ablaze  and 
destroying  many  lives,  then  apprehension  grew  into  fear  and  might 
soon  have  lapsed  into  a  panic,  which  doubtless  would  have  saved, 
through  flight,  the  lives  of  the  thousands  that  were  so  soon  to  be 
sacrificed. 

"  It  was  at  this  crisis  that  the  hand  of  the  Government  ap- 
peared. To  Fort  de  France,  seat  of  local  authority,  had  come  re- 
ports of  the  uneasy  feelings  of  those  dwelling  in  St.  Pierre,  Mar- 
tinique's commercial  centre.  It  is  thought  that  Governor  Mouttet 
honestly  believed  there  was  no  cause  for  alarm,  and  that  a  panic 
in    St.    Pierre    would    work    disaster    in    many   ways,   interrupting 


172  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

commerce  and  injuring  the  whole  island  as  well  as  the  threatened 
city.  He,  if  none  other,  realized  that  an  exodus  from  the  place 
would  be  a  tacit  acknowledgment  of  the  danger  that  lurked  in  the 
volcano,  which  all  in  Martinique  would  have  the  world  believe  was 
long  ago  extinct ;  never  to  be  restored  to  the  list  of  those  still  active, 
nor  yet  classed  with  those  that  are  dormant. 

THE    governor's    ACTION 

"  So  It  came  about  that  the  Governor  saw  fit  to  exercise  moral 
restraint,  it  not  being  within  his  province  or  within  that  of  any 
other  man  to  use  physical  force  in  a  matter  of  this  kind.  In  St. 
Pierre  there  were  some  government  employes,  among  them  gray- 
beards  who  had  spent  years  in  volcanic  regions  and  who  knew  some- 
thing of  the  preliminary  warnings  which  come  from  these  excitable 
hills.  When  the  lava-like  stream  came  pouring  down  from  Pelee, 
these  at  once  made  hurried  applications  for  leaves  of  absence.  The 
Governor  sought  to  make  an  example  of  the  youngest,  and  in  a 
communication  to  him  denied  the  application  for  furlough  ;  saying 
moreover  that  if  the  applicant  quitted  his  post  at  the  time  his  posi- 
tion would  be  taken  from  him.  This  man — unfortunately  names 
are  hard  to  obtain  just  now  from  Martinique's  hysterical  popula- 
tion— promptly  decided  that  his  life  was  worth  more  than  his  place, 
and,  packing  up  his  belongings,  went  with  his  family  to  some  point 
inland,  just  where  no  one  seems  to  know. 

"  It  seems  that  the  others  were  not  so  hardy,  or  were  more  so, 
according  to  one's  way  of  looking  at  it.  At  all  events,  when  the 
Governor's  dictum  was  known,  all  the  government  employes  de- 
cided to  remain,  and  as  fear  loves  company  no  less  than  misery 
does,  these  affected  to  make  light  of  the  danger  so  as  better  to  in- 
duce the  others  to  remain. 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  173 

"  Out  in  the  bay  was  anchored  an  ItaHan  vessel,  a  craft  which 
had  come  in  a  few  days  before  and  which  was  to  have  awaited  there 
instructions  from  her  Genoese  owners.  After  the  rain  of  pebbles 
and  sand  and  the  stream  of  mud,  the  captain  went  to  his  Consul 
and  notified  him  of  his  intention  of  immediately  putting  to  sea.  'I 
know  nothing  of  Pelee,'  the  master  said  to  the  Consul,  'but  I  have 
lived  in  Naples  and  I  know  Vesuvius.' 

"  'That  man,'  reflected  the  Consul  after  the  mariner  had  made 
a  hurried  exit  from  the  consulate,  '  apparently  knows  about  vol- 
canoes.' And  within  the  hour  the  Consul  and  his  family  were 
hastening  to  a  place  of  safety. 

"  Monday,  May  5. — Less  than  eighty  hours  and  the  30,000 
lives  of  St.  Pierre  are  to  be  blotted  out  as  quickly  as  one  snuffs  a 
candle.  Fear  is  rife  among  the  populace  the  morning  of  this  day 
and  an  unwonted  silence  pervades  the  city — the  hush  that  precedes 
great  tragedies.  Macaws  and  parrots  squawk  discordantly  from 
cages,  fountains  tinkle  merrily,  seas  and  skies  are  blue,  but  pervad- 
ing all  is  an  air  of  expectancy — of  dread.  Few  have  yet  left  the 
city,  but  it  would  take  little  now  to  turn  every  street  into  a  strug- 
gling stream  of  humanity  fleeing  panic-stricken  from  the  vicinity  of 
that  awful  volcano.  From  tales  I  have  heard  one  can  easily  con- 
ceive of  what  a  trampling  rush  might  have  followed  some  tocsin 
alarm — such  a  mad  rush  for  safety  as  theatre  crowds  are  wont  to 
make  when  the  cry  of  '  Fire '  is  heard. 

NONE    TO    GIVE    WARNING 

"  But  there  was  none  in  Martinique  to  give  needed  warning — 
not  even  Pelee.  All  that  day  and  the  next  and  the  next  the  vol- 
cano smoked,  and  at  intervals  emitted  clouds  of  ashes, — finely  pul- 
verized pumice  the  chemists  say  the  ashes  are  composed  of, — but 


174  ■  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

the  wind  sent  the  smoke  and  ashes  away  from  the  city,  and  while 
the  rolHng  clouds  were  seen  from  far-off  points  and  the  ashes  fell 
on  the  ships  half  a  hundred  miles  away,  none  in  St,  Pierre  seem 
to  have  known  that  the  mountain  was  even  then  pouring  forth 
smoke  and  ashes. 

"  What  the  residents  did  know  was  that  a  commission  of 
geologists  had  been  appointed  by  the  Governor  to  survey  Pelee 
and  to  report  upon  it — to  say  whether  there  was  danger  there  or 
not.  Then,  too,  the  Governor  himself  was  coming,  and,  moreover,  . 
his  family  were  coming  with  him.  Could  there  possibly  be  any 
danger  where  so  eminent  and  so  important  personages  as  these 
were  ?  Also,  a  company  of  soldiers  from  Fort  de  France  were 
coming,  and  while  the  St.  Pierreans  were  talking  of  their  arrival 
the  company  appeared.  It  seems  singular  that  the  presence  of 
this  small  band  of  soldiery  should  have  inspired  a  misplaced  con- 
fidence, but  so  it  was,  though  none  seem  to  have  asked  what  good 
the  soldiers  could  have  done,  or  what  even  the  mightiest  army 
could  have  effected  against  volcanic  Pelee. 

THE    VILLAGE    OF    CARBET 

"  Wednesday  night — eve  of  horror  !  There  are  none  left  alive 
to  tell  what  the  city  was  like  that  night,  but  just  around  a  little  pro- 
montory at  its  southern  edge  nestles  the  village  of  Carbet,  a  pretty 
town  of  some  six  or  seven  hundred  people,  not  one  of  whom 
was  hurt,  the  town  having  been  screened  by  a  high  ridge  which  lay 
between  it  and  St.  Pierre  and  runs  sheer  to  the  sea. 

"  Its  northern  wall  is  precipitous,  and  built  close  up  to  it  was 
the  southern  section  of  St.  Pierre,  a  thickly  populated  district  whose 
houses  left  barely  enough  room  for  streets,  the  buildings  huddling 
close  to  the  steep  and  wooded  acclivity  as  if  seeking  to  escape  from 
that  crowded  quarter  and  to  consort  with  village  neighbors  on  the 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  175 

other  side  of  the  ridge.  The  intervening  distance  was  short.  By 
the  broad,  finely  graded,  bridged  and  tunnelled  highway  which  con- 
nected city  with  village,  one  would  judge  that  a  five  minutes'  brisk 
walk  would  be  amply  sufficient  to  reach  the  one  from  the  other. 

"  But  none  sought  safety  by  that  road — at  least  none  escaped 
by  it.  The  heartbreaking  pity  of  it  all  is  that  safety  was  so  near — 
at  the  end  of  one's  finger  almost.  For  just  over  the  ridge  the 
grass  and  palms  are  everywhere  as  green  as  any  in  the  tropics 
to-day,  while  up  to  the  very  crest  of  its  northern  slope  are  the 
ineffaceable  marks  of  ruin  and  disaster.  It  was  as  if  some  sea  of 
flame  had  brimmed  to  the  very  crest  of  the  ridge,  to  suck  back 
again  before  overflowing  on  the  other  side. 

DESTROYED    IN    A    FLASH. 

"  So  it  is  to  the  village  folks  of  Carbet  that  one  must  turn  now 
for  the  last  act  in  this  horrible  tragedy.  Night  fell,  the  villagers 
say,  with  an  unnatural,  unearthly  quiet.  Not  a  breath  of  air  to 
stir  the  palms  fringing  quiet  shores  ;  not  a  ripple  to  break  the  mir- 
rorlike clearness  of  still  waters.  It  was  as  if  the  hush  of  death 
lay  everywhere.  True  earthquake  weather,  more  than  one  of  the 
villagers  observed,  as  they  noted  the  oppressive  stillness  of  the  air 
and  the  strange  quiet  of  the  racked  earth. 

"  Thomas  T.  Prentis,  United  States  Consul  at  St.  Pierre,  was 
sitting  on  the  veranda  of  his  home  in  early  hours  of  the  followino- 
morning.     A  friend  came  driving  by  in  a  buggy. 

"  '  You  had  better  get  out  of  this,'  he  called  to  the  Consul.  '  I 
am  getting  out,  and  getting  out  as  fast  as  I  can.' 

'"  Oh,  you  are  just  merely  a  little  scared,'  Mr.  Prentis  replied. 
'There  is  no  need  of  any  one  going  away,' 

"  *  It  is  better  to  be  safe  than  sorry,'  retorted  the  citizen,  as  he 
whipped  up  his  team  and  hastened  on. 


176  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

"  It  is  from  this  man,  who  witnessed  the  disaster  a  short  time 
later  from  a  neighboring  elevation,  from  the  few  who  survived  the 
wreckage  in  the  offing  and  the  few  who  looked  on  the  cataclysm 
from  distant  points,  that  the  only  eyewitness  version  can  be  had. 

"  The  hour  of  the  disaster  is  placed  at  about  8  o'clock.  A  clerk 
in  Fort  de  France  called  up  another  by  telephone  in  St.  Pierre  and 
was  talking  with  him  at  five  minutes  to  8  by  Fort  de  France  time 
when  he  heard  a  sudden,  awful  shriek  and  then  could  hear  no  more. 

"  The  little  that  actually  happened  then  can  be  briefly,  very 
briefly,  told.  It  is  known  that  at  one  minute  there  lay  a  city  smil- 
ing in  the  summer  morning — that  in  another  it  was  a  mass  of  swirl- 
ing flames,  with  every  soul  of  its  thirty  thousand  writhing  in  the 
throes  of  death.  One  moment  and  church  bells  were  ringing  joy- 
ful chimes  in  the  ears  of  St.  Pierre's  thirty  thousand  people — the 
next  the  flame-clogged  bells  were  sobbing  a  requiem  for  thirty 
thousand  dead.  One  waft  of  morning  breeze  flowed  over  cathe- 
dral spires  and  domes,  over  fa9ades  and  arches  and  roofs  and  angles 
of  a  populous  and  light-hearted  city — the  next  swept  a  lone  mass 
of  white-hot  ruins.  The  sun  glistened  one  moment  on  sparkling 
fountains,  green  parks  and  fronded  ponds— its  next  ray  shone  on 
fusing  metal,  blistered,  flame-wrecked  squares  and  charred  stumps 
of  trees.  One  day,  and  the  city  was  all  light  and  color,  all  gayety 
and  grace — the  next  and  its  ruins  looked  as  though  they  had  been 
crusted  over  with  twenty  centuries  of  solitude  and  silence. 

"  St.  Pierre  to-day  is  a  vast  charnel  house.  Skirting  for  nearly 
a  league  the  blue  waters  of  the  Caribbean,  its  smoking  ruins  are 
the  funeral  pyre  of  thirty  thousand  people,  not  one  of  whom  lived 
long  enough  to  tell  adequately  a  story  that  will  stand  grim,  awful, 
unforgotten  as  that  of  Herculaneum,  when  the  world  is  older  by  a 
thousand  years. 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  177 

"St.  Pierre  is  as  dead  as  Pompeii.  If  men  be  found  with 
hearts  stout  enough  to  build  ao-ain  beneath  the  steamine  maw  of 
old  Pelee.  a  new  city  can  rise  only  on  the  ruins  of  the  old.  St. 
Pierre  is  not  only  dead,  but  buried.  Most  of  her  people  lie 
fathoms  deep  in  a  tomb  made  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  by  the 
collapse  of  their  homes,  and  sealed  forever  under  tons  of  boiling 
mud,  avalanches  of  scoria  and  a  hurricane  of  volcanic  dust. 

"Above  the  miles  of  piled  debris  rise  here  and  there  the  relics 
of  her  ten  thousand  homes  and  commercial  factories,  ragged  walls, 
rent,  seamed  and  seared  by  fire.  Fit  monuments  they  are  to  the 
myriads  of  dead  beneath,  who  are  victims  of  the  most  heart-rend- 
ing calamity  of  modern  times  ! 

HOMES    UTTERLY    VANISHED. 

"  In  other  parts  of  the  city  not  even  a  roof  peak  or  chimney 
thrusts  its  top  through  the  sea  of  scoria.  In  the  section  known  as 
the  new  town,  winding  up  the  slope  of  the  mountain  from  the 
crescent  of  the  roadstead,  many  of  the  city's  most  pretentious 
homes  have  utterly  vanished,  as  a  Swiss  chalet  is  swept  from  sight 
by  the  rush  of  an  Alpine  avalanche.  At  such  points  one  is  spared 
all  the  grewsome  horrors  of  the  scene  elsewhere,  for  Pelee  has 
covered  them  under  a  pall  of  ashen  dust  as  soft,  impalpable  and 
smooth  as  drifted  snow,  with  only  a  scurry  blown  from  the  surface 
now  and  then  into  the  blinking  eyes  of  the  explorer,  blinded  by  the 
dazzle  of  the  sunlight  on  the  billowy  gray-white  surface  of  this 
volcanic  grrave. 

"  Old  Pelee  breathed  upon  the  city,  and  under  his  dragon 
breath  fair  St.  Pierre  shrivelled,  crumbled  and  burned,  as  the  wing 
of  the  moth  is  scorched  in  the  flame  of  the  torch.  He  breathed 
again  and  shrouded  the  dead  city  under  a  pall  that  mercifully  hides 
in  spots  the  ghastly  relics  of  her  former  comeliness. 


12 


1 78  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

"  Over  the  entombed  city  the  volcano  from  a  dozen  vents  yet 
pours  its  steaming  vapors  in  long,  curling  wreaths  that  mount 
thousands  of  feet  aloft,  like  smoking  incense  from  a  gigantic  censor 
above  the  bier  of  some  mighty  dead." 

From  the  story  of  a  Herald  party,  who  explored  the  ruins  of 
St.  Pierre  some  ten  days  after  its  destruction,  we  extract  the  inter- 
esting details  next  given.  They  picture  clearly  and  graphically  the 
state  of  affairs  visible  in  the  stricken  city. 

"  With  little  difficulty  a  landing  was  effected  on  the  Marina 
directly  in  front  of  the  ruin  of  the  large  rum  warehouse  of  Lasser 
Freres.  The  wharves  in  front  were  littered  with  an  inextricable 
tangle  of  rum  casks,  barrel  hoops  and  staves,  heavy  iron  anchor 
chains,  piles  of  conch  shells  and  other  maritime  debris.  The 
heavy  masonry  walls  of  the  building,  falling  outward,  had  tumbled 
great  masses  of  stone  and  shattered  machinery  over  the  entire  area, 
and  the  powdery  coverlet  of  fluttering  dust  had  swathed  the  whole 
in  a  cloak  of  neutral  gray.  Up  to  the  second  story  above  the 
ground  the  thick  stone  walls  of  the  front  still  stood,  thouorh  seamed 
and  tottering. 

STRUCK    DEAD    AT    HIS    POST 

"  Here  in  the  main  doorway,  at  the  very  threshold  of  the  place 
where  he  had  toiled,  was  seen  the  first  mute  relic  of  human  tragedy 
— a  negro,  broad-shouldered  and  strong ;  he  had  been  a  stevedore  or 
warehouse  porter  probably.  The  stone  arch  of  the  doorway  had 
saved  him  from  bein"-  crushed  under  the  fallinof  walls  and  the 
masonry  had  shielded  the  body  partially  from  fire.  The  sleeves  of 
his  shirt  had  been  rolled  up  to  the  elbows.  Death  had  found  him 
at  his  daily  task  and  struck  him  down  where  he  stood,  or,  per- 
chance, had  caught  him  in  one  desperate  effort  at  flight  through  the 
doorway  toward   the  harbor   so   close  beyond,  whose  waters  were 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  179 

soon  a  seethino-  caldron  under  the  blast  of  fire  that  scourged  both 
land  and  sea. 

"Along  the  water  front  the  piled  debris  was  not  so  formidable 
as  seriously  to  impede  a  good  climber,  but  the  moment  one  sought 
to  penetrate  to  Bouille  Street,  the  next  thoroughfare  back  from  the 
shore,  he  encountered  difficulties  that  called  for  the  skill  of  an 
Alpine  mountaineer.  Mingled  masonry,  crumbled  mortar,  mud 
and  ashes  formed  a  foul,  noisome  series  of  hillocks,  beneath  which 
the  dead  lay  in  thousands.  At  every  step  the  explorer  encountered 
relics  suggestive  of  the  simple  home  life  of  the  people.  The  wheels 
and  pendulum  of  a  mantel  clock  were  kicked  from  out  the  debris  as 
the  party  shuffled  through  the  flying  dust.  The  end  of  an  old  spring 
bed  projected  amid  the  ruins  of  a  private  house,  and  close  beside  it 
the  relic  of  a  human  skull  and  the  fragments  of  a  spinal  column 
indicated  all  that  was  left  of  its  possible  occupant. 

IN    A    TANGLE    OF    RUINS 

"  Pushing-  throuo;h  Bouille  Street  to  the  northward,  the  tan^rle 
became  more  and  more  intricate.  Here  and  there  the  stone  walls 
of  the  taller  buildings,  cracked  and  crumbling,  leaned  menacingly 
outward  toward  the  centre  of  the  street.  Seamed  and  rent  with 
jagged  cracks  from  base  to  top,  they  looked  as  though  the  slightest 
jar  might  bring  them  tumbling  about  the  heads  of  those  who  ven- 
tured through.  There  had  been  commercial  houses  here,  and  in  a 
dozen  places  iron  boxes  and  small  safes  had  been  routed  out  of  the 
ruins  and  their  fronts  torn  open  by  means  of  crowbars  and  other 
heavy  tools.  In  some  cases  this  had  been  done  by  the  legitimate 
heirs  to  the  property.  In  too  many  instances  there  were  evidences 
of  the  alert  industry  of  the  looters  and  ghouls  who  had  come 
only  to  prey  upon  the  city  of  the  dead.      In  the  deep  gray  powder 


i8o  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

that  covered  the  surface  of  all  things  visible  could  be  traced  the 
footprints  of  the  looters  and  of  the  rescuing  parties  who  had  tra- 
versed the  ground  before.  Save  for  these  the  only  evidences  of 
life  in  the  stricken  town  were  the  footprints  of  the  sea-birds  along 
the  strand. 

"  Here  on  the  left  is  heard  at  last  a  sound.  In  the  deathlike 
stillness  it  strikes  upon  the  ear  strangely.  It  is  the  ripple  of  gurg- 
ling water.  Tracing  it  to  its  source,  we  find  a  water  pipe,  the  nozzle 
of  which  projects  through  the  shattered  wall  of  a  private  dwelling. 
From  it  the  water,  in  pure,  crystal  plenty,  is  pouring  down  and 
welding  the  masses  of  ashes  and  cement  beneath  like  powder  into  a 
sticky  paste.  St.  Pierre's  streets,  with  their  trickling  rivulets  of 
mountain  water,  had  been  the  pride  of  her  citizens.  Through  all 
the  blast  of  fire  at  least  this  remnant  of  her  water  system  had 
survived." 

"One  of  the  party  approached  the  trickling  water  to  lave 
from  hands  and  face  the  chokino-  accumulation  of  dust.  As  he  did 
so  he  stepped  back  and  paused.  Directly  below  where  the  water 
fell  lay  huddled  the  grizzled  remnants  of  a  dead  family. 

"From  this  point  the  party,  with  difficulties  increasing  at  every 
step,  pushed  further  up  the  slope  toward  the  heart  of  the  town  and 
into  Victor  Hugo  Street.  Progress  here  was  made  rather  by  climb- 
ing than  by  walking.  At  every  step  bent  and  twisted  iron  girders, 
pieces  of  steel  shafting,  tons  of  tumbled  masonry  and  piles  of  half 
burned  corpses  barred  the  way.  One  sought  instinctively  to  turn 
his  steps  so  as  not  to  desecrate  the  dead,  but  try  as  he  might,  at 
every  footstep  his  feet  scuffed  up  the  dust  that  uncovered  the  ashes 
of  another  corpse. 

"  Through  Victor  Hugo  Street  we  penetrated  to  what  had  been 
the  Cathedral  de  Moullace.    Had  it  been  hammered  for  a  fortnight 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL  i8i 

under  the  guns  of  a  fleet  of  battle  ships  its  ruin  could  hardly  have 
been  more  complete.  Aloft  in  the  remnant  of  the  higher  of  its 
two  towers  a  pair  of  bells  yet  hung  tottering  in  the  belfry.  There 
for  scores  of  years  their  mellow  peal  had  summoned  the  pious  Cath- 
olics of  St.  Pierre  to  early  masses.  But  the  peak  of  the  tower, 
smitten  by  the  resistless  blast,  had  been  detached  bodily,  together 
with  the  heavy  iron  framework  supporting  the  largest  bell  of  the 
chime,  and  the  whole  mass,  twisted,  bent  and  afterward  welded  in- 
the  fiery  furnace,  lay  half  buried  forty  feet  away,  in  the  court  of 
what  had  been  the  parish  house.  Of  that  structure,  which  had 
adjoined  the  cathedral,  and  which,  like  it,  had  faced  upon  the  Place 
de  Moullace,  not  a  fragment  was  left  save  its  foundation  walls. 

"  In  what  had  been  its  centre  could  still  be  traced  the  circular 
basin  from  which  had  spurted  a  pretty  fountain  of  water.  It  was 
filled  now  with  ashes,  mortar  and  dust,  through  which  projected  the 
fragments  of  human  bones. 

ONCE    A    LITTLE    EDEN. 

"  Directly  in  front  of  the  cathedral  and  the  parish  house  was 
the  Place  de  Moullace.  A  little  Eden  it  had  been,  green  and  fresh 
with  the  verdure  of  the  cocoanut  and  the  royal  palm,  under  the- 
shade  of  which  the  residents  of  St.  Pierre  were  wont  to  eather  in 
daily  gossip.  Not  so  much  as  the  stump  of  a  tree  remained  to 
indicate  the  former  beauties  of  this  little  bit  of  tropical  paradise. 
Trees  sturdy  and  tall  as  many  of  the  beautiful  elms  of  Central 
Park  had  been  shorn  off  and  shrivelled  under  the  blast,  and  then 
their  stems  had  been  literally  uprooted  and  sent  hurling^through 
space  against  the  wrecked  walls  of  the  church. 

"  Nowhere  was  stronger  evidence  presented  than  here  that  the 
cataclysm  was  explosive  in  character.      Nowhere  else  in  the  silent 


1 82   .  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

city  were  the  visible  dead  marshalled  in  such  awful  hosts  as  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  cathedral  and  the  Place  de  Moullace. 
One  could  not  escape  the  thought  that,  gay  and  mercurial  as  was 
the  daily  life  of  St.  Pierre,  its  citizens  had  fiocked  in  greater  num- 
bers than  usual  to  the  shadow  of  the  cross  during  the  four  days 
of  anxiety  and  final  panic  that  preceded  the  climax. 

"When  Pickett  on  the  last  day  of  Gettysburg  hurled  his  legions 
in  the  final  assault  upon  Hancock's  Second  Corps,  it  was  said  that 
over  the  ground  traversed  by  that  great  charge  from  Seminary 
Ridge  to  the  point  held  by  Webb's  Philadelphia  brigade  a  man 
might  have  walked  literally  upon  the  bodies  of  the  slain.  Could 
he  have  done  so,  he  must  have  picked  his  way.  In  the  Place  de 
Moullace  of  St.  Pierre,  and  immediately  surrounding  the  cathedral, 
one  could  hardly  so  pick  his  way  as  to  escape  walking  upon  the 
bodies  of  the  dead.  It  was  no  exaggeration  when  Consul  Ayme,  of 
Guadeloupe,  said  that  the  streets  of  St.  Pierre  were  paved  with  the 
corpses  of  her  citizens. 

"  Some  crude  effort  had  been  made  to  destroy  by  fire  the 
grewsome  relics  spared  by  the  original  cataclysm,  but  the  work  had 
been  done  all  too  ineffectively.  Fagots  of  driftwood,  piled  around 
and  above  heaps  of  the  slain,  had  been  fired  by  negroes  employed 
for  that  purpose,  but  the  work  of  cremation  was  only  partly  accom- 
plished. From  a  sanitary  point  of  view  it  is  fortunate  for  Martin- 
ique that  the  vast  majority  of  those  who  died  when  her  chief  city 
was  annihilated  are  buried  so  deep  as  to  need  no  better  sepulchre. 

"  Within  the  walls  of  the  cathedral  the  ruin  was  complete.  Even 
the  altar  was  not  spared,  though  one  of  the  earliest  rescuing  parties 
upon  the  ground  succeeded  in  saving  the  candelabra,  the  chalice 
and  other  holy  vessels,  and  persons  of  a  deeply  devout  bent  of  mind 
soon  found  in  this  an  evidence  of  miraculous  intervention. 


BEFORE  AND  AFTER  FfS  FALL  183 

"Though  many  ghouls  had  already  prowled  through  the  cata- 
combs of  the  ruined  city,  St.  Pierre  presented  a  profitable  field  for 
the  would-be  looter.  It  would  have  been  easy  for  any  member  of  our 
party  during  the  hours  in  which  we  tramped  over  the  entombed 
town  to  have  filled  barrels  with  silver  spoons,  coins,  earrings,  finger 
rings,  jewelry  and  knickknacks  of  all  kinds,  many  of  them  of  intrin- 
sic value,  and  others  of  interest  solely  as  souvenirs.  In  the  ruins 
of  every  house  of  the  better  residential  quarters  might  have  been 
picked  up  scores  of  such  trinkets.  In  one  place  it  was  easy  to 
recognize  the  steel  framework  of  a  bicycle.  In  another  the  iron 
portions  of  a  sewing  machine  projected  through  a  conglomerate 
mass  of  dust,  ashes,  kitchen  utensils  and  human  bones. 

STRANGE    CONTRASTS 

"Strange  contrasts  were  presented  at  every  pace  during  this 
grewsome  journey.  There  were  sugar  mills  and  distilleries  in  which 
heavy  machinery  was  crushed  and  pulverized  so  as  to  be  hardly 
recognizable.  Ponderous  flywheels  and  cylinder  heads  were  flat- 
tened out  and  shivered  by  some  Titanic  force.  And  yet,  in  one 
instance  at  least,  in  a  house  not  a  hundred  yards  from  where  such 
manifestations  of  power  were  visible,  so  fragile  a  thing  as  a  tropical 
bird  had  been  spared  mutilation.  Outside  the  balcony  of  one  of 
the  houses  facing  toward  the  sea  a  roomy  wooden  cage  was  sus- 
pended from  either  end  by  two  wires.  Its  support  at  one  end  had 
been  detached,  but  it  hung  securely  from  the  other.  The  cage  had 
not  even  been  scorched.  At  its  bottom,  dead,  but  unburned  and 
brilliant  yet  in  the  bright  colors  of  its  tropical  plumage,  lay  a  heron, 
doubtless  the  pet  of  some  St.  Pierre  belle.  Next  door  to  the  house 
where  the  bird  in  his  feathered  panoply  had  escaped  the  death  blast 
a  building  fitted  with  great,  thick  oaken  doors  had  been  riddled  as 


1 84  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ITS  FALL 

though  under  the  fire  of  a  battery  of  rified  guns.  The  doors  were 
blown  from  their  hinges  and  great  ragged  openings  yawned  through 
their  panels  as  though  volleys  of  buckshot  had  been  poured  through 
them." 

UNDER    MONT    PELEE's    BROW 

Leaving  Fort  de  France  at  one  o'clock  Monday  morning,  May 
19,  the  LnckenbacJi — the  Herald  despatch  boat — -ran  past  St.  Pierre 
and  then  under  the  brow  of  Pelee  long  before  daylight.  The  volcano 
at  that  time  was  an  awe-inspiring  spectacle.  Great  clouds  of  fleecy 
vapor  were  rolling  aloft,  not  only  from  the  main  crater,  but  from 
many  other  seams  or  vents  that  had  been  opened  along  its  slopes. 
Some- of  these  were  well  down  toward  the  base.  The  moon  was 
shining  full  and  touching  with  silver  the  great  columns  of  smoky 
vapor  that  rolled  aloft  in  rings  and  spirals  toward  the  zenith.  Only 
from  the  mouth  of  the  main  crater  was  the  fleecy  mass  reddened  to 
an  angry  russet  glow  by  the  fiery  furnace  beneath. 

As  the  Luckenbach  skirted  the  shore,  giving  the  volcano  a 
wide  berth  of  not  less  than  four  miles,  the  distant  muttering  of  its 
thunder  could  be  heard,  and  as  the  steamer's  passengers  and  crew 
listened  awe-stricken,  the  topmost  crater  belched  again.  Long 
tongues  of  fire  shot  up  through  the  smoke,  now  black  and  lurid 
with  ashes  and  dust.  The  heavens  glowed  red  above  old  Pelee's 
crest,  as  they  do  when  some  gigantic  conflagration  at  night  writes 
its  signal  aloft  where  all  may  read  it  within  a  radius  of  miles.  As 
the  boat  forged  seaward  the  last  glimpse  of  the  fiery  mouth  of  the 
demon  that  had  wrought  such  havoc  was  a  spectacle  never  to  be 
forgotten. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Experiences  on  Barbados  and  St.  Vincent. 


U.  S.   Consul  at  Barbados 

BARBADOS   is  situated  in  latitude  13°  4'  north,  longitude  59° 
37'  west.      St.  Vincent   is  about  96  miles  west  from    Barba- 
dos ;     population    about   47,000;    Martinique    is   about    120 
miles  nearly  north  from  Barbados  ;  population  i  50,000  to  200,000. 

ERUPTION    OF    MOUNT    SOUFRIERE 

Mount  Soufriere,  the  volcano  on  St.  Vincent,  has  been  quies- 
cent since  April  30th,  181 2,  when  a  terrific  eruption  took  place. 
The  first  indications  of  eruption  from  the  mountain  were  noticed 
on  the  5th  and  6th  of  May,  1902,  and  the  knowledge  that  Mount 
Pelee,  on  Martinique,  was  in  eruption  increased  the  apprehension 
of  the  people.  From  about  9  a.  m.  on  Wednesday,  the  7th,  heavy 
thunderings  were  heard  from  the  Soufriere,  with  continuous  flashes 
of  lightning,  but  no  rain.  This  continued  until  1.30  p.  m.,  when  it 
changed  into  a  continuous  and  tremendous  roar,  and  vast  columns 
of  smoke  issued  from  the  crater.  These  columns  became  denser, 
and  at   2.40  p.  m.  scoria  began  to  fall  like  hail,  and  then  changed 

185 


1 86  BARBADOS  AND  ST.    VINCENT 

into  a  fine  dust.  Lava  destroyed  the  plantations  nearest  the  moun- 
tain ;  large  stones  and  gravel  fell  in  great  quantities  during  the  day 
and  succeeding  night.  The  volcano  roared  all  night,  but  during 
the  next  day,  the  8th,  the  noise  became  intermittent,  the  scoria 
and  dust  still  falling,  but  decreasing  in  quantity.  These  conditions 
continued  intermittently  until  the  13th  of  May,  when  the  volcano 
seemed  to  subside,  though  for  many  days  later  the  mountain  still 
smoked  and  showed  signs  of  unrest. 

CONDITIONS    AT    BARBADOS 

The  conditions  at  Barbados  during  this  period  were  remarkable 
in  many  respects  ;  everybody  was  discussing  the  possible  conse- 
quences of  the  volcanic  eruption  at  Martinique.  About  2.30  p.m., 
May  8th,  two  loud  reports  were  heard  in  quick  succession,  followed 
some  minutes  after  by  a  third  report.  The  sound  was  as  if  heavy 
guns  were  being  fired  near  by.  People  began  to  gather  near  the 
harbor,  expecting  to  see  a  man-of-war  out  at  sea  engaged  in  target 
practice  with  heavy  guns.  Such  loud  explosions,  if  not  from  artil- 
lery or  explosions  near  by,  were  soon  connected  with  the  volcanic 
activity  at  St.  Vincent,  and  this  opinion  was  confirmed  by  the  sud- 
den appearance  to  the  westward  of  a  heavy  black  cloud.  At  4 
p.  M.  the  cloud  covered  this  island,  at  4.30  fine  sand  and  dust  began 
to  fall,  striking  like  hail  or  wind-driven  snow.  At  5  p.  m.,  more 
than  an  hour  before  sunset,  it  was  as  black  as  the  darkest  midnight. 
The  dust  fell  all  night,  and  covered  the  island  to  a  depth  variously 
estimated  at  from  one  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The  dust 
was  all-pervading;  it  was  very  fine,  and  reached  the  inside  of  watches 
and  every  minute  cievice.  Many  suppose  it  has  fertilizing  quali- 
ties ;  at  any  rate,  we  shall  be  plagued  by  it  for  a  long  time  to  come. 
The  scene  was  one  to  rouse  the  imagination  and  terrify  many  who 


BARBADOS  AND  ST.    VINCENT  187 

feared  a  tidal  wave  or  earthquake  ;  as  a  fact,  there  was  a  phenome 
nal  rise  in  the  tide  at  Barbados  during  the  afternoon  of  May  7th. 

The  result  of  this  terrible  disaster  at  St.  Vincent  is  fully  equal 
to  all  published  reports.  The  people  were  dazed.  The  more 
active  were  straining  every  nerve  to  afford  relief  to  the  suffering. 
The  loss  of  life  is  variously  estimated  at  from  900  to  1,600.  It  is 
extremely  probable  that  not  less  than  1,600  have  perished.  The 
condition  of  the  injured  was  heart-rending  indeed.  The  Executive 
of  Barbados  at  first  declined  aid,  but  the  distress  was  greater  than 
he  thought,  and  liberal  aid  has  been  sent  by  Barbados,  British 
Guiana,  St.  Lucia  and  other  near-by  colonies.  The  details  received 
early  from  the  scene  of  disaster  were  most  horrifying.  Carcasses 
of  beasts  and  human  bodies  were  lying  by  the  hundreds  in  a  state 
of  decomposition,  and  in  small  shops,  opened  three  days  after  the 
eruption,  87  unrecognizable  decaying  bodies  were  discovered.  Very 
many  injured  and  sick  were  collected  and  are  being  cared  for.  Medi- 
cal aid  and  medicines  were  early  sent  there.  H.  M.  S.  hidefatig- 
able  left  Barbados  May  15th  for  St.  Vincent  with  food,  medicines 
and  other  helps.  It  will  be  a  long,  sad  time  before  St.  Vincent 
recovers  from  this  last  awful  visitation.  The  island  was  devasted 
by  the  hurricane  of  September,  1898,  and  the  struggles  of  the 
people  were  hard  indeed  ;  and  now,  when  hope  began  to  glow 
in  their  hearts,  a  still  more  awful  calamity  has  fallen  upon  them. 
Besides  the  loss  of  life,  and  the  physical  agonies  of  the  injured,  there 
is  to  be  considered  the  destruction  of  stock,  crops,  fruit  and  other 
property.  While  temporary  aid  will  reach  these  people,  it  is  pitiful, 
indeed,  to  think  of  what  they  must  endure  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

The   following   official   communication  was  received  from  Mr. 
E.  A.  Richards,  U.  S.  Consular  Agent  at  St.  Vincent : 


i88  BARBADOS  AND  ST.    VINCENT 

U.  S.  Consular  Agency, 
St.  Vincent,  W.  L,  May  i6th,  1902. 

S.  A.  Macalijster,  Esq., 

U.  S.  Consul,  Baj^bados,   W.  I. 
Dear  Sir  : — In  reply  to  your  despatch  of  yesterday's  date,  I  beg 
to  state  that,  having   called  on  the  Governor  with  the  view  of  ob- 
taining the  information  asked  for  by  you,  he  stated  as  follows: 

"There  have  been  1,600  deaths,  160  wounded,  130  of  whom 
are  now  in  hospital  (but  it  is  feared  many  others  will  succumb),  9 
or  10  plantations  have  been  destroyed  and  almost  2,000  cattle 
killed.  Estimated  damage,  ^50,000  to  ^60,000.  Food  supplies 
will  be  wanted  for  six  months  to  feed  4,000  or  5,000  persons  left 
destitute,  for  whom  houses  will  have  to  be  erected.  Immediate 
wants  have  been  supplied,  but  help  will  be  very  acceptable." 

I  have  given  you  the  exact  words  of  the  Governor,  and,  so  far 
as  I  can  learn,  his  description  may  be  taken  as  correct  as  it  is  pos- 
sible at  present  to  estimate. 

I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

(Signed)  E.  A.  Richards, 

U.  S.  Consular  Agent. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Experiences   in  Martinique   during  and  after  the 

Destruction  of  St.  Pierre. 


THE  loss  of  life  and  the  destruction  at  St.  Vincent  were  ter- 
rible indeed,  but  what  words  can  describe  the  awful  facts 
and  scenes  at  Martinique  ?  A  few  days  before  the  fateful  8th 
of  May,  1902,  there  was  a  beautiful  city  in  Martinique,  called  St. 
Pierre;  a  city  of  churches,  convents,  colleges,  banks,  warehouses, 
residences  ;  by  the  last  census  it  contained  35,000  human  beings. 
At  least  5,000  more  lived  in  the  near-by  little  towns  and  villages. 
In  a  few  moments,  on  the  morning  of  the  8th  of  May,  1902,  the 
city  of  St.  Pierre  and  most  of  its  suburbs,  with  30,000  human  beings, 
had  perished,  as  perished  the  cities  and  inhabitants  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum !  No  one  on  shore  close  enough  to  describe  the 
realities  of  the  storm  of  fire  could  live  to  give  his  story.  Hundreds 
of  incidents  will  be  related,  hundreds  of  opinions  and  theories  will 
be  expressed,  but  the  narrative  of  the  utter  destruction  of  St. 
Pierre  during  the  time  of  its  occurrence  will  probably  never  be 
accurately  written.      It   is  said   that  only  one  of   the  thousands  on 

land  within  the  zone  of  that  terrible  deluge  of  fire  is  alive  to-day! 

1S9 


I90  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

St.  Pierre  is  no  more!!!  The  beautiful  seaside  city  is  now  a  black- 
ened ruin,  the  swollen  and  bursted  corpses  of  her  people  lie  strewn 
along  the  deserted,  obstructed  streets,  and  amid  the  ashes  of  the 
burnt  buildings. 

But  let  the  scene  be  described  as  witnessed  by  two  of  the 
gentlemen  who  composed  a  relief  party  sent  from  Barbados  on  the 
night  of  May  loth,  arriving  at  Martinique  on  Sunday  morning, 
May  1 1  th,  three  days  after  that  fearful  morning.  One  is  by  Mr. 
Arthur  J.  Clare,  the  United  States  Vice  Consul  at  Barbados,  and 
the  other  is  a  report  of  Dr.  Manning,  who  had  charge  of  the  relief 
party  referred  to. 

THE    VICE    consul's    REPORT 

United  States  Consulate, 

Barbados,  W.  I.,  May  12th,  1902. 
S.  A.  MacAllister, 

U.  S.  Consul.,  Barbados. 

Sir  : — In  accordance  with  your  written  instructions  of  the  loth 
instant,  to  proceed  to  Martinique  and  render  any  assistance  in  my 
power  to  Mr.  Prentis,  our  Consul  at  St  Pierre,  his  family,  or  any 
other  Americans  who  might  be  sufferers-  from  the  disastrous  vol- 
canic eruption  at  St.  Pierre  on  the  8th  instant,  I  reported  on  board 
the  S.  S.  Solent  at  5.45  p.  m.  as  instructed. 

The  Solent  was  to  leave  at  6  p.  m.,  but  on  account  of  delay  in  tak- 
ing supplies  on  board,  sent  by  the  Government  of  Barbados,  we  did 
not  sail  until  8.05  p.  m.,  arriving  at  F'ort  de  France,  Martinique,  at 
7  o'clock  the  following  morning. 

The  Colonial  Secretary  of  Barbados,  who  was  in  charge  of  the 
relief  expedition  from  this  island,  and  Dr.  Manning,  in  charge  of  the 
medical  staff,  went  on  shore,  at  the  invitation  of  the  Port  Officer  at 
Fort  de  France,  to  confer  with  the  Acting  Governor  of  Martinique 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  191 

and  to  arrange  about  landing  the  supplies.  It  was  decided  that  we 
should  at  once  sail  for  St.  Pierre  and  discharge  the  supplies  at 
Port  de  France  on  our  return  to  that  port  in  the  evening. 

We  arrived  at  St.  Pierre  about  noon,  and  a  landing  party  was 
at  once  eot  together,  consisting  of  Hon.  T.  I.  Newton.  Colonial 
Secretary,  and  his  clerk,  Mr.  Allder  ;  Doctors  Manning  and  Hut- 
son,  of  Barbados  ;  Dr.  W.  E.  Aughinbaugh  and  T.  J.  Ryan,  Ameri- 
cans, who  were  the  first  to  volunteer  for  the  relief  expedition  ;  the 
ship's  doctor;  N.  E.  Parravicino,  the  Italian  Consul  at  this  place, 
who.  had  joined  us  at  Fort  de  France  ;  Mr.  Bowring,  representing 
the  Quebec  S.  S.  Co.;  Mr.  Shennery,  assistant  editor  of  the  "  Bar- 
bados Advocate ;"  several  other  gentlemen  and  myself.  The  captain 
of  the  Solent  was  in  command  of  the  landing  party. 

From  the  ship  we  could  plainly  see  that  the  city  of  St.  Pierre 
was  entirely  destroyed,  but  it  remained  for  us  to  land  to  realize  the 
full  horror  of  the  situation.  No  life  whatever  was  to  be  seen — no 
animals,  birds,  insects,  nothing  but  dead  bodies  lying  along  the 
water  front  and  in  all  the  streets  through  which  we  passed.  The 
clock  at  the  Military  Hospital  had  stopped  at  7.50,  the  hour  of  the 
terrible  volcanic  eruption  which  destroyed  a  city  and  its  35,000 
inhabitants,  no  one  within  the  city  or  suburbs  escaping  on  that  fate- 
ful morning. 

The  city  was  still  on  fire  in  several  places  when  we  landed,  and 
the  scent  of  the  burning  bodies,  and  that  from  the  other  bodies 
which  had  been  exposed  to  the  sun  for  several  days,  was  horrible. 
The  building  in  which  the  American  Consulate  was  located  is 
entirely  wrecked,  only  part  of  the  walls  remaining ;  no  papers, 
books,  or  anything  whatever  connected  with  the  Consulate  could 
be  found,  all  having  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Without  doubt 
Consul    Prentis,    his    wife    and    daughters    have    perished.       Mr. 


192  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

Testart,  the  American  Vice  Consul,  was  boarding  the  S.  S.  Rod- 
dam  at  the  time  of  the  explosion,  and  was  thrown  into  the  sea  by 
the  concussion  and  drowned. 

On  our  way  back  to  the  water  front,  I  met  Consul  Ayme,  of 
Guadeloupe,  who  had  come  over  from  that  place  in  a  chartered 
steamer.  Mr.  Ayme  returned  to  Fort  de  France  in  the  Solent  \Y'\i\\ 
our  party,  and  decided  to  remain  there  and  communicate  with 
Washington  reo-ardinpf  his  visit  to  St.  Pierre. 

As  all  the  food  stored  in  warehouses  in  St.  Pierre  was 
destroyed,  a  large  supply  will  be  needed  at  Fort  de  France  for  some 
time  to  come,  to  enable  the  Government  to  feed  the  refugees  daily 
pouring  into  that  place.  The  Solent  discharged  the  supplies  at 
Fort  de  France,  which  were  sent  by  the  Government  of  this  island, 
and  w^e  left  there  about  6  p.  m.  on  the  i  ith  and  arrived  at  Barbados 
the  following  morning  at  9  o'clock. 

Respectfully 

(Signed)         ARTHUR  J.   CLARE, 

U.  S.  Vice  Co7isul. 

THE    DESTRUCTION    OF    ST.   PIERRE. 
(By  Dr.  C.  J.  Manning  of  Barbados.) 

On  Saturday  last  telegrams  were  received  stating  that  there 
had  been  terrible  loss  of  life  in  Martinique,  but  beyond  the  bare 
fact  that  the  loss  of  life  to  town  and  shipping  had  been  great, 
there  was  nothing  definite,  nothing  certain.  The  first  and  natural 
impulse  was  to  render  assistance  to  our  sister  colony,  and  at  half- 
past  one  o'clock  the  Governor  summoned  his  chief  ofificers,  and  the 
result  of  their  deliberation  was  that  assistance  should  be  sent  and 
the  sooner  the  better.  It  was  also  decided  that  the  assistance 
should   be  twofold.      First,  a  quantity   of  foodstuffs  should   be  at 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  193 

once  dispatched  ;  second,  medical  relief  should  also  be  sent,  as  it 
appeared  most  probable  that  there  would  be  a  vast  number  who 
had  escaped  from  St.  Pierre,  badly  burnt  or  injured  during  the  des- 
truction of  the  town. 

Accordingly  Dr.  Manning  was  ordered  to  take  charge  of  this 
department,  and  with  the  assistance  which  was  freely  given  on  all 
sides,  the  services  of  five  medical  men — including  Dr.  Manning — 
were  secured,  viz.:  Surgeon-Majors  Will  and  Bent  from  the  garri- 
son, Dr.  John  Hutson  and  Dr.  Aughinbaugh.  Three  Hospital 
nurses  also  volunteered  their  services.  The  Sanitary  Board  very 
liberally  offered  the  loan  of  fifty  cots  with  blankets  and  clothing. 
The  garrison  also  sent  a  party  of  ambulance  bearers  with  stretchers 
and  two  large  tents.  The  General  Hospital  furnished  instruments 
and  surgical  appliances,  and  drugs  were  procured  in  town  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  outfit  for  fifty  beds.  The  Royal  Mail  generously 
placed  the  Solejit  at  our  disposal,  and  the  whole  outfit  was  got  on 
board  on  Saturday  evening,  the  ship  steaming  out  of  the  harbor  on 
her  mission  of  mercy  at  8  o'clock. 

THE    "sclent"    at    ST.    PIERRE 

Fort  de  France  was  reached  at  7  a.  m.,  and  Mr.  Newton,  the 
Colonial  Secretary,  who  was  in  charge  of  the  party,  landed  and  pre- 
sented his  papers  to  the  Acting  Governor,  who  readily  gave  per- 
mission to  allow  the  Solent  to  go  to  St.  Pierre,  which  was  reached 
about  noon.  A  boat's  party  was  landed,  and  on  nearing  the  shore 
the  remains  of  nine  vessels  were  seen  besides  the  Roraima,  which 
was  still  burninof.  She  was  laden  with  kerosene  oil  and  had  blown 
up,  and  it  was  observed  on  passing  her  that  a  wicker-work  chair 
had  been  blown  from  the  deck  and  had  hooked  on  to  one  of  the 
awning  stanchions.     The  sides  of  the  ship  were  red  hot,  for  as  the 


194  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

waves  lapped  her  sides  we  could  hear  them  hiss  and  see  the  smoke. 
The  absolute  ruin  of  the  town  next  attracted  our  attention;  the  bare 
walls  were  standing,  it  is  true,  but  heaps  of  debris  blocked  the  streets 
everywhere  and  made  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  walk.  On  landing 
we  found  all  the  large  fig  trees  near  the  beach  uprooted,  and  some 
of  them,  with  the  roots  uppermost,  were  without  a  single  leaf  left 
on  them.  The  boughs  were  snapped  rudely  off  and  scattered  all 
over  the  landing  place. 

We  observed  that  one  house  had  fallen  in  and  the  ceiling  laths 
were  twisted  all  in  one  direction,  just  as  one  might  twist  a  handful 
of  straws.  These  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  the  sudden  escape 
of  so  much  heated  air  from  the  volcano  at  the  time  of  the  great 
explosion  had  caused  a  sort  of  whirlwind  which  tore  up  the  trees 
by  their  roots.  There  was  no  sign  whatever  of  there  having  been 
a  great  earthquake,  as  there  were  no  cracks  or  fissures  on  the  espla- 
nade, or  anywhere  else,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  nearly  all  the 
walls,  or,  at  all  events,  the  greater  part  of  them,  were  left  standing. 
Smoke  and  flame  were  to  be  seen  in  various  parts  of  the  town,  and 
far  above  our  heads  the  volcano  could  still  be  seen  sending  out 
dense  masses  of  black  smoke.  The  cathedral  was  yet  smoulder- 
ing, and  here  and  there  we  passed  houses  still  aglow  and  smoking. 
And  now  began  our  excursion  through  the  town.  No  words  can 
depict  that  scene. 

DISTRESSING    SPECTACLES 

I  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  as  soon  as  the  ship  dropped 
anchor  we  noticed  the  unmistakable  smell  of  scorched  flesh,  and  as 
we  approached  in  the  boat  the  smell  increased  perceptibly,  and  at 
times  in  our  journey  through  the  town  became  quite  overpowering. 
Wherever  we  turned  there  were  dead  bodies  to  be  seen,  scorched, 
blackened,   hideous    and    heart-rendingr  to   behold.      The    o^reater 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  195 

number  of  them  were  on  their  faces,  some  with  their  heads  buried 
between  their  hands  as  if  to  avoid  the  stifling  effects  of  tlie  vapor 
which  suffocated  them  all.  Here  lay  a  magnificent  specimen  of  a 
man,  evidently  a  sailor  who  had  perhaps  floated  ashore  on  some 
piece  of  wreckage  in  the  full  assurance  that  he  had  escaped  the 
dangers  of  the  burning  ship  and  was  safe.  He  had  pulled  his 
jumper  over  his  head  to  avoid  the  suffocating  fumes,  but  all  to  no 
purpose.  Not  one  living  soul  had  escaped.  The  city  was  doomed, 
and  no  one  survived  to  tell  the  awful  tale  of  its  destruction.  Turn- 
ing from  this  poor  fellow  we  pass  on  to  find  more  and  more  dead 
bodies.  Round  this  corner  are  sixteen  in  a  heap,  all  evidently  hav- 
ing been  running  their  fastest  to  escape  death,  which  overtook  them 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  There  they  lie  a  seething,  sickening 
mass  of  scorched  and  putrifying  flesh.  Look  at  the  dainty  little 
shoes  still  on  the  feet  of  this  slender  girl !  Beyond  her  there  lie 
two,  evidently  mother  and  daughter  ;  the  child  is  still  grasping 
tightly  the  mother's  hand,  now  locked  fast  in  death.  From  another 
we  take  the  small  piece  of  bread,  with  the  mark  of  the  little  one's 
teeth  freshly  impressed  upon  it,  the  very  last  morsel  that  she  would 
ever  taste. 

We  pass  on  along  the  street,  and  opposite  the  bank  there  lie 
the  remains  of  probably  the  horse  and  buggy  of  Mr.  Barnes,  the 
manager  of  that  institution.  The  horse  had  his  head  tucked  under 
him  in  his  effort  to  escape  the  effect  of  the  deadly  fumes.  Ugh ! 
what  was  that  my  foot  sank  into  ? — a  dead  body  covered  with 
debris.  Let  us  move  on.  It  matters  not,  wherever  we  turned, 
wherever  we  roamed,  there  was  the  same  awful  story  of  death  and 
destruction.  Look  at  that  poor  girl  !  She  must  be  about  eighteen. 
There  is  a  splinter  of  wood  driven  clean  through  her  leg.  Here 
lie  the   charred  remains  of  a  dog.       Look  at  this  poor  woman  ! 


196  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

How  bravely  she  has  fought  for  the  Httle  child  she  has  clasped  to 
her  breast !  She  lies  right  over  it,  but  what  avail  ?  Both  are  dead. 
But  oh,  the  heat,  the  dust,  and  the  terrible  depression  which 
overpowers  one.  Just  think  of  it.  On  Wednesday  last  here  was 
a  busy  town  full  of  bustle  and  business,  and  now  a  ruin,  with  not  a 
living  creature  left  in  it.  From  what  we  could  gather  it  appears 
that  the  mountain,  for  days  before  the  terrible  explosion  which 
destroyed  the  city,  had  been  uneasy;  rumbling  noises  were  heard; 
smoke  and  flashes  of  light  had  been  seen  ;  but  there  was  no  alarm. 
But,  at  all  events,  people  were  evidently  beginning  to  be  uneasy, 
and  the  Governor  of  Martinique  took  with  him  his  wife,  and  a 
commission  of  'savants"  was  held  on  the  condition  of  affairs  to 
see  if  there  was  any  danger.  They  confidently  told  the  people 
there  was  no  cause  for  alarm,  and,  as  a  proof,  the  Governor  and  his 
lady  moved  about  the  streets  of  St.  Pierre  to  reassure  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  were  evidently  becoming  alarmed  ;  but  commissions  of 
enquiry  on  volcanoes  seem  to  be  productive  of  no  more  good  than 
commissions  on  anything  else. 

THE    TERRIFIC    EXPLOSION 

There  is  a  report  afloat,  but  I  trust  that  this  might  not  be 
true,  viz.,  that  a  cordon  of  soldiers  was  placed  round  the  town  to 
hinder  persons  from  escaping  and  to  prevent  panic  ;  but  in  the 
meantime,  about  8  a.  m. — for  the  clock  in  the  bank  which  we  found, 
and  that  at  the  top  of  one  of  the  streets,  both  stopped  at  ten 
minutes  to  8  o'clock — a  terrific  explosion  from  the  volcano 
occurred,  covering  the  shipping  and  the  town  not  with  lava,  as  we  see 
it  at  Vesuvius,  but  with  stones  and  other  material  so  awfully  hot 
that  whatever  they  touched  took  fire  if  at  all  inflammable.  This 
molten   material  covered  the  town   and  the  harbor  so  that  all  the 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  197 

shipping  and  every  building  in  the  town  must  have  been  ablaze  at 
about  the  same  time.  Simultaneously  there  came  the  blast  or 
whirlwind  of  hot  air,  which  tore  up  the  trees  by  their  roots  and  no 
doubt  damaged  the  buildings  also. 

Barbados,  too,  has  contributed  to  the  number  of  the  victims. 
For  Mr,  Parravicino  lost  his  little  daughter.  She  was  to  come  up 
by  the  Roraima,  and  it  is  possible  she  was  on  board  ship  at  the 
time  of  the  disaster.  [The  story  of  the  search  for  her  body  is 
given  elsewhere.]  The  wife  of  Mr.  H.  J,  Ince  and  child  have 
also  perished  on  that  ship.  Some  members  of  Mr.  Stokes' 
family  were  also  on  board.  Mr.  Gloumeau,  the  bandmaster  of  our 
Police  Band,  lost  all  his  family,  some  thirty  all  told — mother,  sisters 
and  other  relatives  all  gone  in  one  of  the  most  fearful  convulsions 
of  nature  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  chaplain  of  the  S.  S.  Caribbte,  which  arrived  here  yester- 
day afternoon,  informed  me  that  he  observed,  when  passing  Mar- 
tinique on  Sunday  night,  that  Pelee  was  still  active  ;  flashes  of  light 
were  to  be  seen  and  volumes  of  dense  smoke  were  issuing  forth. 
He  also  passed  by  much  wreckage  and  many  dead  bodies  during 
the  afternoon. 

We  offer  those  who  are  left  to  lament  their  loss  our  most 
heartfelt  and  sincere  sympathy. 

DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    STEAMSHIP    "  RORAIMA  " 

The  S.  S.  Roraima,  of  the  Quebec  S.  S.  Co.,  was  at  anchor  at 
St.  Pierre  on  the  fateful  morning  of  May  8th.  The  officers,  crew 
and  passengers  numbered  about  sixty.  All  but  ten  perished. 
Eight  of  these  are  in  the  hospital  at  Fort  de  France,  badly  burned. 
The  chief  officer,  Mr.  Scott,  and  the  assistant  purser,  Thompson, 
were  rescued  by  the  French  cruiser  Suchet.  Here  is  their  story  of 
the  catastrophe  ;  I  use  their  own  words  : — 


198  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

[It  is  proper  to  state  here  that  the  stories  of  the  experience  of 
Messrs.  Scott  and  Thompson  have  already  been  given.  But  as 
the  accounts  cited  by  Dr.  Manning  differ  in  language  from  those 
mentioned,  and  contain  new  and  important  facts  from  the  observations 
of  these  eye-witnesses  we  quote  what  he  says  as  an  essential  part  of 
his  highly  interesting  report.] 

Mr.  Scott  states  that  "  the  ship  arrived  at  St.  Pierre  at  6  a.m.  on 
the  8th.     About  8  o'clock  loud  rumblinof  noises  were  heard  from 
the  mountain  overlooking  the  town,  eruption  taking  place  imme- 
diately, raining  fire  and  ashes ;  lava  running  down  the  mountain 
side  with  terrific  roar,  and  sweeping  trees  and  everything  in   its 
course.      I  went  at  once  to  the  forecastle-head  to  heave  anchor. 
Soon  after  reaching  there  there  came  a  terrible  downpour  of  fire, 
like  hot  lead,  falling  over  the  ship  and  followed  immediately  by  a 
terrific  wave  which  struck  the  ship  on  the  port  side,  keeling  her  to 
starboard,  flooding  ship,  fore  and  aft,  sweeping  away  both  masts, 
funnel-backs  and  everything  at  once.     I  covered  myself  with  a  ven- 
tilator standing  near  by,  from  which  I  was  pulled  out  by  some  of 
the  stevedores,  and  dragged  to  the  steerage  apartment  forward, 
remaining  there  some  time,  during  which  several  dead  bodies  fell 
over  and  covered  me.      I  was  extricated  by  some  men.     Shortly 
after,  a  downfall  of  red  hot  stones  and  mud,  accompanied  by  total 
darkness,  covered  the  ship.     So  soon  as  the  downfall  subsided,  I 
tried  to  assist  those  lying  about  the  deck  injured,  some  fearfully 
burnt.    Captain  Muggah  came  to  me,  scorched  beyond  recognition. 
He    had    ordered    the    only    boat  left  to   be  lowered ;  but,  being 
badly  damaged,  could  not  be  lowered  from  the  davits.      P>om  that 
time,  I  saw  nothing  of  the  captain ;  but  was  told  by  a  man  that  the 
captain  was  seen  by  him  to  jump  overboard.     The  man  followed 
him  in  the  water,  and  succeeded  in  getting  the  captain  on  a  raft 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  199 

floating  nearby,  where  he  died  shortly  after.  I  gave  all  help  pos- 
sible to  passengers  and  others  lying  about  the  deck  in  dying  condi- 
tion, most  of  whom  complained  of  burning  in  the  stomach.  I  picked 
up  one  little  girl  lying  in  the  passageway  dying,  covered  her  over 
with  a  cloth,  and  took  her  to  a  bench  nearby,  where  I  believe  she 
died.  Sometime  after,  a  man  who  had  been  in  the  water  with  a 
life  buoy  on,  told  me  the  captain  was  dead.  About  3  p.  m.  a  French 
man-of-war's  boat  came  alongside  and  passed  over  the  side  about 
twenty  persons,  mostly  injured,  and  myself  and  other  survivors 
were  taken  to  Fort  de  France.  When  I  was  on  the  forecastle-head 
I  observed  a  steamer  to  the  north,  but  further  out  to  sea  than  the 
Roraima.  I  afterwards  saw  the  Roddarn  steaming  out  to  sea,  with 
her  stern  part  on  fire.  The  Roraima  caught  fire  and  was  burning 
when  I  left  her  in  the  afternoon,  the  town  and  all  shipping 
destroyed." 

WHAT    THOMPSON    SAW 

Assistant  Purser  Thompson  said  he  was  on  the  deck  of 
Roraima  about  7  a.  m.,  and  saw  the  volcano  emitting  smoke  and 
flame,  rising  from  the  crater.  The  chief  steward  called  the  pas- 
sengers on  deck  to  witness  the  lava  which  began  to  sag  down  the 
mouth  of  the  mountain,  running  in  the  direction  of  the  Usine 
Guerrin.  The  smoke  became  more  dense  and  slisfht  darkness 
apparent.  The  gloom  began  to  increase,  and  he  then  suggested 
to  the  steward  to  get  under  cover,  as  the  situation  was  getting  ter- 
rible. He  then  saw  the  flames  darting  upward  from  the  mountain 
to  a  great  height  in  the  air,  and,  at  the  same  time,  heard  awful  sub- 
terranean sounds  such  as  had  never  been  heard  by  man  before,  and 
which  he  hoped  never  to  hear  again.  They  were  louder  than  the 
sound  of  any  cannon.  The  mountain  appeared  to  be  rent  in  pieces, 
and  he  saw  a  living  ball  of  fire,  large  enough  to  cover  the  whole  of 


200  EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE 

St.  Pierre,  rolling  down  upon  the  city.  He  rushed  into  his  cabin, 
locked  it,  and  threw  a  blanket  over  his  head,  shutting  the  port-hole 
as  well.  The  fire  by  this  time  had  struck  the  water's  edge,  and  great 
foam  arose  ;  the  water  swelled  to  a  great  height  and  fell  on  the  ship, 
keeling  her  over.  He  remained  some  time  in  his  cabin,  but  came 
out,  after  the  water  had  subsided,  to  look  around.  The  sight  which 
met  his  gaze  was  awful.  People  were  lying  all  about  the  deck  dead, 
and  there  were  many  others  dying  and  suffering.  The  captain 
jumped  overboard,  his  face  in  a  terribly  scalded  condition.  Cooper, 
his  servant,  jumped  after  him,  and  they  drifted  about  the  harbor. 
Finding  he  was  getting  too  near  the  shore,  and  that  the  captain 
could  not  live.  Cooper  decided  to  leave  him.  He  returned  to  the 
ship  to  get  help,  but  when  he  reached  the  raft  the  second  time  the 
captain  was  dead. 

THE    "  RODDAM  "    ESCAPES 

The  British  steamship  Roddam  had  a  wonderful  escape.  She 
had  just  entered  the  harbor  and  was  about  nine  miles  distant  from 
the  crater  when  the  terrible  eruption  occurred.  The  storm  of  fire 
and  cinders  fell  on  her  and  with  great  difficulty  she  steamed  away, 
but  about  twenty  of  her  crew  perished.  The  captain  and  the  other 
survivors,  though  badly  burned,  managed  to  get  the  ship  to  the 
Island  of  St.  Lucia,  where  they  were  sent  to  the  hospital.  At  St. 
Lucia  new  officers  and  crew  were  obtained,  who  brought  the  ship 
to  Barbados  on  the  1 7th  instant.  She  is  now  at  anchor  here,  show- 
ing the  results  of  her  fiery  ordeal. 

The  prompt  and  generous  aid  afforded  at  a  most  opportune 
time  by  Barbados,  British  Guiana,  Trinidad,  St.  Lucia  and  other 
neighboring  islands  to  both  St.  Vincent  and  Martinique  will  always 
command  the  highest  praise  and  commendation ;  more  especially 
so  as  the  people  of  those  places  are  for  the  most  part  very  poor 


EXPERIENCES  IN  MARTINIQUE  .  201 

themselves,  and,  owing  to  the  low  price  of  sugar,  their  principal 
staple,  there  has  been  and  still  is  very  great  depression  and  anxiety. 
Their  aid  has  been  extended  in  a  most  splendid  manner,  at  great 
sacrifice  to  themselves,  and  in  a  quiet,  sorrowful  and  unostentatious 
spirit. 

Cable  communication  between  St.  Vincent  and  Martinique  was 
interrupted  on  May  7th.  Messages  had  to  be  sent  by  vessels  from 
St.  Vincent  to  Dominica  for  transmission  to  other  parts  of  the 
world.  This  made  cable  communications  very  slow  and  expen- 
sive. On  May  20th  the  cable  had  not  been  repaired.  Communi- 
cation from  Dominica  north  was  not  disturbed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Guatemalan  Earthquakes  and  the  Nicaragua 

Canal. 

THE  volcanic  eruption  is  an  occurrence  of  dread  uncertainty. 
Now  it  comes  upon  us  "  like  a  thief  in  the  night,"  with 
hardly  a  moment's  warning  of  its  ruinous  intent ;  now  it 
sends  its  premonitions  in  advance,  giving  notice  of  the  approaching 
outbreak  for  months,  sometimes  for  years.  But  the  alarm  signal 
of  its  coming  is  at  times  more  fatal  than  the  work  of  the  volcano 
itself,  for  this  is  the  earthquake,  that  most  destructive  to  human 
life  of  all  earth's  agents  of  terror.  We  have  seen  that  the  explosion 
of  1 812  was  heralded  by  earthquake  shocks  two  years  in  advance, 
culminating  in  the  frightful  disaster  at  Caracas.  That  of  1902  sent 
similar  destructive  tidings  of  its  approach,  coming  from  as  far  away 
as  the  states  of  Guatemala  and  Mexico. 

SUBTERRANEAN    FORCES 

In  truth  an  outbreak  like  that  of  the  Martinique  volcano  could 
not  but  Indicate  some  deep-seated  and  far-reaching  condition  of 
unrest  in  the  earth's  crust.  The  forces  at  work  in  this  disaster  lay 
many  miles  below  the  earth's  surface,  and  were  in  consequence 
capable  of  making  themselves  felt  throughout  an  area  continental 
in  extent.  Whether  the  final  explosion  was  due  to  pressure  from 
above,  to  rock-splitting  and  Assuring,  to  the  generation  of  steam  or 
other  cause,  its  conditions  existed  long  before  the  final  outbreak, 
202 


THE  G  UA  TEA! ALAN  EAR  THQ  UAKES  20 


o 


the  pent-up  forces  of  the  rocks  causing  the  surface  to  tremble  vio- 
lently more  than  a  thousand  miles  away. 

The  earthquake's  action,  traveling  through  the  rock  strata 
below,  probably  produces  its  most  energetic  surface  effect  at  some 
point  where  the  crust  is  weak  and  the  resistance  slight.  In  the 
present  instance  that  point  appears  to  have  been  in  Southern  Mex- 
ico and  Western  Guatemala,  where  severe  disturbances  of  the 
earth  preceded  the  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee.  The  first  warning 
came  on  the  i6th  of  January,  1902,  in  a  destructive  earthquake  in 
the  south  of  Mexico,  its  centre  of  catastrophe  being  at  Chilpancingo, 
the  capital  of  the  state  of  Guerrero.  This  city  was  violently  shaken, 
hundreds  of  its  people  being  killed  and  many  more  injured  by  falling 
walls.  The  greatest  loss  took  place  in  the  parish  church,  the  walls 
of  which  were  thrown  down  on  a  crowd  of  worshippers  who  had 
assembled  there.  But  the  shock  was  felt  over  a  large  area,  and  the 
vibration  of  strong  buildings  caused  much  alarm  in  the  distant  city 
of  Mexico. 

THE    CONVULSION    OF    APRIL    1 8,     I902 

Far  more  disastrous  were  the  convulsions  which  visited  Gaute- 
mala  on  April  18,  and  for  nearly  a  week  shook  the  cities,  towns  and 
villages  on  the  western  slope  of  the  sierras  of  that  republic.  Shortly 
after  8  o'clock  on  the  night  of  April  18,  at  Gautemala  City,  the 
capital  of  the  republic,  a  blinding  flash  of  lightning,  followed  by  a 
thunder  storm  and  torrents  of  rain,  all  in  the  space  of  a  very  few 
minutes,  caused  the  people  in  the  streets  to  rush  to  the  houses  for 
shelter;      In  an  instant,  however,  an  earthquake  was  upon  them. 

The  shock  lasted  from  thirty  to  forty  seconds  and  caused  the 
wildest  panic.  Rushing  frantically  into  the  darkness  and  through 
the  flooded  streets,  anywhere  away  from  the  straining  rafters  and 
cracking  walls,  ran  the  multitude,  crying,  praying,  and  a  few  trying 


204  THE  G  UA  T EM  ALAN  EAR  THQ  UAKES 

to  sing  the  "  Salve  Regina."  The  shocks  following  were  less 
severe,  and  by  lo  o'clock  many  of  the  inhabitants  were  wandering 
about,  examining  the  walls  of  the  Cathedral  of  Santa  Teresa,  La 
Recollection  and  other  churches  which  were  damaged.  There  was 
no  loss  of  life,  and  the  property  damage  was  less  than  at  first 
feared,  though  walls  were  cracked  all  over  the  city  and  many  old 
houses  were  tumbled  in  ruins.  In  the  days  that  followed  the  shocks 
continued  with  more  or  less  violence. 

This  earthquake  was  by  no  means  confined  to  the  city  named, 
but  extended  through  the  whole  northwestern  region  of  that  coun- 
try, one  of  the  richest  districts  in  Central  America,  and  left  ruin 
everywhere  in  its  track.  The  buildings  and  machinery  of  the  rich 
coffee  and  sugar  estates  were  ruined.  As  news  came  in  from  the 
hill  country  the  tale  of  destruction  spread  rapidly  and  grew  appal- 
ling. Among  the  towns  that  felt  its  force  were  Amatitlan,  San  Juan, 
San  Marcos,  Escuintla,  Santa  Lucia,  Utatlan  and  several  smaller 
places,  all  these  being  partly  ruined,  though  few  lives  were  lost. 

A    CITY     IN     RUINS 

The  centre  of  calamity  was  at  Quezaltenango,  a  place  of  more 
than  40,000  inhabitants  and  the  second  city  of  the  republic,  which 
suffered  by  far  the  most.  Here  hundreds  of  residences  and  public 
buildings  were  either  totally  destroyed  or  seriously  damaged.  It 
is  estimated  that  more  than  90  per  cent,  of  the  buildings  fell.  The 
very  narrow  streets,  often  not  over  three  or  four  yards  wide,  and 
the  irre^jular  manner  in  which  the  town  was  built,  served  to  make 
deathtraps  of  the  houses,  so  that  not  less  than  2,000  people  were 
killed  and  many  persons  were  badly  injured.  Fire  as  well  as  flood 
added  to  the  horror  of  the  night  of  ruin,  with  the  result  that  many 
people  went  insane  and  some  committed  suicide. 


THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES  205 

At  the  time  of  the  first  shock  a  violent  wind-  and  rain-storm 
was  raging.  The  electric  lighting  plant  of  the  city  was  disabled, 
and  when  the  people,  panic-stricken  by  the  rumbling  and  shaking 
of  the  earthquake,  rushed  from  their  houses  it  was  only  to  meet 
death.  Stumbling  and  falling  in  the  narrow,  winding  streets,  iii 
total  darkness  save  when  the  lightning  lit  up  the  crumbling  city 
with  an  unearthly  glare,  the  people  died  by  hundreds  under  the 
falling  walls,  while  other  hundreds  were  caught  like  rats,  only  to 
die  of  suffocation  or  drowning.  The  quaking  and  rain  kept  up 
continually  for  three  days.  This  made  it  almost  impossible  to  do 
effective  relief  work,  and  as  a  consequence  the  stench  from  the 
thousands  of  bodies  in  the  ruins  became  unbearable.  To  prevent 
the  threatened  ravages  of  pestilence  the  Government  was  com- 
pelled to  employ  large  numbers  of  men  to  remove  the  bodies  from 
the  wreck  and  consign  them  to  the  grave. 

Natives  from  the  interior  flocked  to  the  capital,  completely 
terror-stricken.  Farms  were  deserted,  and  there  were  fears  of  a 
famine  in  consequence.  The  Pacific  coast  suffered  far  greater 
damage  than  the  Atlantic,  and  the  disturbance  of  the  surface  ex- 
tended into  Nicaragua,  doing  there  also  much  damage  to  property. 
At  the  time  of  the  earthquake  a  session  of  the  National  Com- 
mission for  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  was  being  held,  and 
the  members,  with  a  composure  remarkably  in  contrast  with  the 
blind  terror  of  the  populace,  continued  their  sitting  for  two  hours, 
though  the  earthquake  shocks  made  the  large  crystal  chandelier  of 
the  palace  swing  like  a  pendulum  over  their  heads. 

In  addition  to  these  preliminary  phenom.ena,  the  eruption  of 
Pelee  was  attended  with  other  evidences  of  far-reaching  disturb- 
ance. Earthquake  tremors  were  wanting,  the  seismic  instruments 
in    various    places    showing   no   evicience  of   disturbance.      But    a 


2o6  THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES 

magnetic  influence  spread  wide,  the  delicate  magnetic  needles  of  the 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  in  Maryland  and  Kansas  being  dis- 
tinctly affected  and  their  disturbance  lasting  for  many  hours.  Other 
indications  of  the  earth's  convulsive  affection  were  threats  of  an 
eruption  in  the  volcano  of  Colima,  Mexico,  which  had  been  in  a 
state  of  unrest  for  ten  years,  and  slighter  evidences  of  internal 
activity  in  other  places. 

The  facts  here  detailed,  and  in  particular  those  of  the  earth- 
quake disturbances  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  are  of  great 
significance  in  connection  with  the  measure  now  before  Congress 
providing  for  the  construction  of  an  international  ship-canal  across 
Nicaragua,  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans 
by  a  waterway  traversing  the  neck  of  land  which  connects  the  twin 
American  continents. 

THE    CANAL    ROUTE 

Without  going  into  detail  concerning  the  history  of  this  pro- 
ject, we  may  say  that  it  has  been  for  many  years,  even  for  centur- 
ies, entertained,  the  Spaniards  having  dreams  of  such  a  canal  more 
than  three  centuries  ago.  During  the  eighteenth  century  many 
plans  for  its  construction  were  proposed,  and  actual  work  began. 
Money  enough  was  expended  on  the  French  canal  at  Panama  to 
more  than  complete  it,  but  for  the  wild  waste  of  funds,  and  some 
work  was  done  on  a  parellel  canal  across  Nicaragua.  At  the  end 
of  the  century  these  projects  had  been  virtually  abandoned— 
though  some  work  was  still  doing  on  the  Panama  Canal — and  the 
United  States  government  was  entertaining  the  purpose  of  exca- 
vating a  canal  as  a  national  enterprise. 

A  commission  was  sent  to  Central  America  and  the  Isthmus 
to  investigate  and  report,  and  after  a  year  or  more  of  research  gave 
its  decision  in  favor  of  the  Nicaraguan  route  as,  all  things  considered, 


THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES  207 

the  most  promising.  Bills  were  introduced  Into  both  Houses  of 
Congress  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  in  accordance  with  the 
recommendation  of  the  Commissioners,  and  were  passed  in  two 
successive  sessions  of  the  House,  though  no  final  action  was  taken 
in  the  Senate.  In  January,  1902,  the  affair  took  a  different  aspect, 
due  to  an  offer  of  the  French  Canal  Company  to  sell  their  partly 
completed  canal  at  Panama  for  $40,000,000.  This  reduced  the  esti- 
mated cost  of  finishing  the  latter  canal  below  that  necessary  for  the 
Nicaragua  route,  and  a  decision  was  now  rendered  by  the  Commis- 
sioners in  favor  of  the  Panama  project.  Thus  the  matter  rested 
in  the  spring  of  1902.  The  final  route  of  the  canal  was  left  clouded 
in  doubt. 

Meanwhile  voices  had  been  heard  assailinor  the  Nicarao^uan 
project  from  another  point  of  view,  that  of  the  volcanic  character 
of  the  region  it  would  traverse  and  its  possible  ruin  by  earthquake 
shock  when  completed.  Prominent  among  those  holding  this  view 
was  Professor  Angelo  Heilprin,  a  geologist  of  Philadelphia,  who  pub- 
lished a  number  of  treatises  calling  attention  to  the  strong  proba- 
bility of  such  an  occurrence.  Panama,  on  the  contrary,  was  con- 
sidered practically  safe,  its  past  history  showing  a  long  freedom 
from  seismic  disturbance. 

Earthquake  shocks  may,  it  is  true,  occur  anywhere,  and  very 
destructive  tremors  have  been  experienced  in  regions  absolutely 
non-volcanic.  Yet  the  paroxysms  of  nature  which  change  the  fea- 
tures of  a  whole  country,  heave  up  mountains  where  there  formerly 
were  depressions,  and  make  the  ocean  flow  over  what  once  was  dry 
land,  always  take  place  in  regions  of  crustal  weakness.  Such  re- 
gions are  marked  by  volcanoes,  active  or  seemingly  extinct.  To 
locate  a  ereat  work  intended  to  last  for  all  time  across  one  of  the 
**  fire  circles"  of  seismologists  would  be  more  a  crime  than  a  blunder. 

o 


2o8  THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES 

Of  these  "fire  circles"  tropical  North  America  contains  two — 
one  being-  indicated  by  the  semicircular  chain  of  volcanic  islands  in 
the  West  Indies,  the  other  running  approximately  parallel  to  the 
latter  from  Central  Mexico  through  Guatemala,  Honduras  asd 
Nicaragua  into  Costa  Rica.  On  the  latter  circle  there  are  dis- 
tributed over  a  linear  distance  of  a  little  over  200  miles  not  less 
than  twenty-five  volcanoes.  Some  of  these  are  inactive,  but  dor- 
mant volcanoes  have  a  habit  of  suddenly  bursting  out  with  titanic 
violence,  a  fact  of  which  we  have  had  striking  recent  experience. 

There  are  three  volcanoes  in  Lake  Nicaragua  itself,  which 
body  of  water  it  is  proposed  to  make  the  summit  level  of  the  pro- 
jected canal  on  this  line.  Indeed,  the  evidence  of  geology  is  that 
Lake  Nicaragua  was  once  an  arm  of  the  Pacific,  and  that  the  cen- 
tral plateau  of  Nicaragua  was  formerly  much  nearer  to  the  Carib- 
bean coast  than  at  present.  The  forces  which  effected  so  vast 
a  change  in  the  configuration  of  the  land  are  still  active.  The 
eruption  in  1835  of  Coseguina,  which  lies  but  sixty  miles  from  the 
proposed  Nicaragua  canal  route,  was  of  extraordinary  violence.  So 
tremendous  was  this  explosion,  and  so  great  was  the  storm  of  dust 
and  ashes,  that  absolute  darkness  prevailed  for  thirty-five  miles 
in  every  direction,  while  the  rain  of  dust  and  ashes  actually  fell 
over  a  radius  some  270  miles  in  diameter.  Nearly  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  volcano  the  ground  was  covered  with  ten  feet  of  ashes 
and  fine  dust.  Seven  hundred  miles  away,  in  the  harbor  of  Kings- 
ton, Jamaica,  the  ejected  materials  fell  four  days  after  the  explosion. 
The  eruption  was  accompanied  by  detonations  the  roar  of  which  was 
heard  a  thousand  miles  away,  and  it  has  been  computed  that  the 
matterthrown  out  by  the  volcano  during  every  six  minutes  of  its  forty- 
four  hours  of  activity  would  have  equaled  in  cubic  contents  the 
quantity  of  earth  to  be  excavated  in  the  construction  of  the  projected 


{Copyrighted  by  Judge  Publishing  Co.,  igoj.) 
THE  ONLY  PHOTOGRAPH  TAKEN  OF  THE  VOLCANIC  OUTBREAK  OF  MT.  PELEE    MAYS 
1902,  DURING  THE  HEIGHT  OF  THE  ERUPTION,  A  SCENE  AS  GRAND  AS  IT 

WAS  APPALLING. 


(Copyrighted  by  Judge  Publishing  Co.,  1902.) 
A  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PICTURE  GIVING  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  RUINS  OF  ST.  PIERRE  LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  MOUNTAIN. 


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THE  CLOCK  THAT  TOLD  THE  STORY. 
This  Picture  Shows  the  Ruins  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  Pierre  and  the  Clocl<  with  the  Hands  Pointing  tu  7.50,  which  Indicated 

the  Time  at  which  the  City  was  Overwhelmed. 


THE   COCOA  INDUSTRY,  WEST  INDIES 


A  FAMILIAR  ROAD-SIDE  SCENE.— Going  to  Market 


THE  G  UA  TEMALAN  EARTHQ  UAKES  209 

canal  of  Nicarauga.  Cosegulna  could  have  filled  up  ten  times 
in  one  hour  a  canal  prism  which  the  contractors,  with  all  their 
boasted  labor-saving  devices  and  the  employment  of  tens  of  thous- 
ands of  hands,  would  require  eight  years  to  excavate. 

Another  active  volcano,  with  its  last  eruption  as  recent  as 
1883,  dominates  the  island  in  Lake  Nicaragua  which  every  ship 
will  skirt  on  the  passage  from  Greytown  to  Brito.  This  is  Mount 
Ometepe.  On  the  same  island  is  a  second  volcanic  peak,  that  of 
Madera.  In  1844,  nine  years  after  the  explosion  of  Coseguina, 
occurred  the  great  earthquake  which  destroyed  the  city  of  Rivas, 
near  the  Pacific  shore,  and  wrought  great  damage  even  at  Grey- 
town,  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  away  on  the  Atlantic  side.  The 
line  surveyed  for  the  Nicaragua  canal  between  the  lake  and  Brito 
rims  only  five  miles  from  Rivas  and  has  its  Atlantic  terminus  at 
Greytown. 

PANAMA    EARTHQUAKES 

The  danger  of  such  convulsions  at  Panama  is  far  less.  We 
are  told  by  M.  Bunau-Varilla,  a  distinguished  French  engineer,  that 
in  Panama  there  is  within  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  eighty 
miles  from  the  canal  no  volcano,  even  extinct.  The  Isthmus  there, 
since  its  formation  in  the  early  quarternary  period,  before  man 
appeared  on  the  earth,  has  not  been  modified.  It  lies  in  an  "  angle 
of  stability,"  so  called  by  seismographers.  Except  for  rare  and  not 
very  violent  seismic  vibrations,  originating  at  distant  centres,  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  has  never  been  affected  by  volcanic  disturb- 
ances. One  earthquake  of  some  violence,  indeed,  has  occurred 
there  during  the  historic  period,  that  of  1621,  when  the  greater 
part  of  Panama  city  was  shaken  down.  Aside  from  this  the  most 
destructive  earthquake  known  in  the  history  of  Panama  was  that 
of  September  7,  1882.  It  lasted  only  a  minute,  but  in  that  time 
•     14 


2 1  o         THE  G  UA  T EM  ALAN  EARTHQ  UAKES 

shook  down  the  court-house  and  ruined  the  front  of  the  old  cathe- 
dral. Yet  it  may  be  affirmed  that  no  paroxysmal  convulsions  have 
remodeled  the  geographical  features  of  the  Isthmus,  as  is  the  case 
with  Nicaragua,  and  that  its  hills  are  nearly  if  not  quite  as  stable  as 
those  of  the  Appalachian  system. 

We  have  spoken  of  these  facts,  not  alone  from  their  former 
bearing  upon  the  canal  question,  but  especially  from  their  press- 
ing importance  in  the  light  of  recent  events.  In  truth,  little  atten- 
tion had  been  or  seemed  likely  to  be  paid  to  them  by  legislators 
until  after  the  startling  event  of  May  8,  1902.  This  put  a  different 
aspect  on  the  case,  and  aroused  the  people  and  press  of  the  United 
States  to  a  peril  threatening  the  canal,  if  constructed  in  Nicaragua, 
of  which  few  had  been  aware.  Such  an  explosion  as  that  of  Mont 
Pelee  was  certainly  an  awakening  incident.  The  Mexican  and 
Guatemalan  earthquakes  showed  that  the  forces  of  eruption  were 
not  confined  to  the  volcanic  chain  of  the  Antilles,  but  were  active 
in  a  region  closely  adjoining  the  projected  canal,  and  that  there 
was  no  security  that  earthquake  shock  or  volcanic  explosion  might 
not  take  place  at  any  time  on  the  line  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  canal,  letting  its  water  escape  through  fissures  or  burying 
the  nearly  $200,000,000  of  United  States  money  expended  in  its 
construction  under  such  tons  of  volcanic  lava  and  ashes  as  have 
buried  from  sight  the  city  of  St.  Pierre.  Certainly,  in  view  of  these 
facts.  Congress  will  feel  it  necessary  to  go  slowly,  and  Panama 
Canal  stock  is  likely  to  rise  rapidly  in  public  estimation  as  compared 
with  that  of  its  Nicaraguan  rival. 

We  have  spoken  of  Professor  Heilprin  as  one  who  has  fre- 
quently pointed  out  the  danger  here  considered.  We  cannot 
better  close  this  chapter  than  by  a  quotation  from  his  latest  views 
on  the  subject,  written  since  the  Martinique  disaster.      He  says  : — 


THE  GUA TEMALAN  EARTHQ UAKES  2 1 1 

"In  various  papers  that  I  have  recently  pubHshed  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  Nicaraguan  Canal,  I  have  indicated  my  dissent  from 
the  opinions  expressed  by  the  official  geologists  associated  with 
that  enterprise,  which  have  maintained  that  the  volcanoes  in  the 
regions  to  be  traversed  by  the  canal  are  in  a  decaying  or  semi- 
somnolent  or  extinct  condition,  and  that  consequently  little  is  to  be 
feared  for  a  construction  of  the  magnitude  or  character  represented 
by  the  Nicaraguan  Canal.  No  facts  that  are  in  possession  of  the 
geologists  can  be  properly  construed  to  support  this  conclusion. 

PROFESSOR    HEILPRIN's    VIEWS    ON    THE    CANAL 

"  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  all  point  conclusively 
in  a  direction  which  is  directly  the  reverse  of  that  which  has  been 
maintained.  On  the  line  of  the  proposed  Nicaraguan  Canal  there 
are  both  active  and  semi-active  volcanoes,  even  within  the  basin  of 
Lake  Nicaragua  itself,  and  no  knowledge  which  the  geologist 
possesses  can  permit  him  in  any  way  to  indicate  the  possibilities  of 
eruption  which  lie  in  these  scenes  of  disturbance.  At  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  route  planned,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  volcano  of 
Coseguina,  as  late  as  1835  occurred  one  of  the  most  paroxysmal  of 
destructive  eruptions  that  have  ever  been  recorded,  the  volcano 
itself  being  almost  exactly  of  the  dimensions  of  Mont  Pelee  in 
Martinique.  It  must  therefore  be  considered  as  a  menace  to  any 
structure  that  may  be  built  by  man. 

"  A  remarkable  parallel  can  be  drawn  between  the  conditions 
prevailing  in  Nicaragua  along  the  line  of  the  proposed  canal  and 
those  existing  in  New  Zealand  in  the  lake  region  of  Rotoma- 
hana,  in  June,  1886,  prior  to  the  eruption  of  the  great  volcano 
Tarawera.  At  that  time  the  volcano  had  been  assumed  to  be  ex- 
tinct for  upward  of    one   hundred    years,   when  entirely  without 


212  THE  GUATEMALAN  EARTHQUAKES 

warning  it  broke  out  in  full  activity,  rent  the  earth  with  a  chasm  forty 
miles  long,  drained  the  lake  entirely  of  its  waters,  and  destroyed  the 
famous  pink  and  white  terraces.  Precisely  the  same  things  may 
take  place  in  the  Nicaraguan  region.  The  conditions  are  almost 
entirely  identical,  with  this  emphasis  :  That  the  Nicaraguan  region, 
as  a  near  neighbor  of  the  Carribbean,  probably  occupies  an  area  of 
still  less  stability  than  that  of  New  Zealand. 

"  So  far  as  the  Panama  region  is  concerned,  it  has  powerfully 
in  its  favor  the  fact  that  there  are  no  volcanoes  either  on  the  route 
or  near  the  route,  and  that  even  the  seismic  disturbances  which  are 
so  common  throughout  South  America,  Central  America  and  a 
large  part  of  Mexico  have  been  comparatively  little  felt  in  that 
region  for  a  period  of  very  nearly  three  hundred  years — no  destruc- 
tive eruption  or  earthquake  having  taken  place  there  since  1621." 

In  view  of  these  considerations  one  would  reasonably  conclude 
that  the  Panama  route  was  far  the  safer  of  the  two.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  for  the  laity  to  decide,  but  must  be  left  to  the  assembled 
wisdom  of  our  Congressional  representatives. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Active  Volcanoes  of  the  Earth. 

IT  is  not  by  any  means  an  easy  task  to  frame  an  estimate  of  the 
number  of  volcanoes  in  the  world.  Volcanoes  vary  greatly  in 
their  dimensions,  from  vast  mountain  masses,  rising  to  a  height 
of  nearly  25,000  feet  above  sea-level,  to  mere  molehills.  They 
likewise  exhibit  every  possible  stage  of  development  and  decay: 
while  some  are  in  a  state  of  chronic  active  eruption,  others  are 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  solfataras,  or  vents  emitting  acid  vapors, 
and  others  again  have  fallen  into  a  more  or  less  complete  state  of 
ruin  through  the  action  of  denuding  forces. 

NUMBER    OF    ACTIVE    VOLCANOES 

Even  if  we  confine  our  attention  to  the  larger  volcanoes,  which 
merit  the  name  of  mountains,  and  such  of  these  as  we  have  reason 
to  believe  to  be  in  a  still  active  condition,  our  difficulties  will  be 
diminished,  but  not  by  any  means  removed.  Volcanoes  may  sink 
into  a  dormant  condition  that  at  times  endures  for  hundreds  or 
even  thousands  of  years,  and  then  burst  forth  into  a  state  of  re- 
newed activity  ;  and  it  is  quite  impossible,  in  many  cases,  to  distin- 
guish between  the  conditions  of  dormancy  and  extinction. 

We  shall,  however,  probably  be  within  the  limits  of  truth  in 
stating  that  the  number  of  great  habitual  volcanic  vents  upon  the 
globe  which  we  have  reason  to  believe  are  still  in  active  condition, 
is  somewhere  between  300  and  350.      Most  of  these  are  marked  by 

more  or  less   considerable   mountains,  composed  of   the   materials 

213 


214  ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

ejected  from  them.  But  if  we  include  mountains  which  exhibit  the 
external  conical,  form,  crater-like  hollows,  and  other  features  of 
volcanoes,  yet  concerning  the  activity  of  which  we  have  no  record 
or  tradition,  the  number  will  fall  little,  if  anything,  short  of   i,ooo. 

The  mountains  composed  of  volcanic  materials,  but  which  have 
lost  throueh  denudation  the  external  form  of  volcanoes,  are  still 
more  numerous,  and  the  smaller  temporary  openings  which  are 
usually  subordinate  to  the  habitual  vents  that  have  been  active  dur- 
ing the  periods  covered  by  history  and  tradition,  must  be  numbered 
by  thousands.  There  are  still  feebler  manifestations  of  the  volcanic 
forces — such  as  steam-jets,  geysers,  thermal  and  mineral  waters, 
spouting  saline  and  muddy  springs,  and  mud  volcanoes— that  may 
be  reckoned  by  millions.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these  less  pow- 
erful manifestations  of  the  volcanic  forces  to  a  great  extent  make 
up  in  number  what  they  want  in  individual  energy ;  and  the  relief 
which  they  afford  to  the  imprisoned  activities  within  the  earth's 
crust  may  be  almost  equal  to  that  which  results  from  the  occasional 
outbursts  at  the  great  habitual  volcanic  vents. 

In  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  volcanic  phenomena  of  the 
globe,  no  facts  come  out  more  strikingly  than  that  of  the  very  un- 
equal distribution,  both  of  the  great  volcanoes,  and  of  the  minor 
exhibitions  of  subterranean  energy. 

Thus,  on  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  there  is  but 
one  habitual  volcanic  vent — that  of  Vesuvius — and  this  is  situated 
upon  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  islands  of  that  sea, 
however,  there  are  no  less  than  six  volcanoes:  namely,  Stromboli, 
and  Vulcano,  in  the  Lipari  Islands;  Etna,  in  Sicily;  Graham's  Isle, 
a  submarine  volcano,  off  the  Sicilian  coast;  and  Santorin  and  Ni- 
syros,  in  the  ^4igean  Sea. 


ACTIVE   VOLCANOES  OE  THE  EARTH  215 

The  African  continent  is  at  present  known  to  contain  about 
ten  active  volcanoes — ^foiir  on  the  west  coast,  and  six  on  the  east 
coast,  while  about  ten  other  active  volcanoes  occur  on  islands  close 
to  the  African  coasts.  On  the  continent  of  Asia,  more  than  twenty- 
active  volcanoes  are  known  or  believed  to  exist,  but  no  less  than 
twelve  of  these  are  situated  in  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka.  No 
volcanoes  are  known  to  exist  in  the  Australian  continent. 

The  American  continent  contains  a  greater  number  of  vol- 
canoes than  the  continents  of  the  Old  World,  There  are  twenty 
in  North  America,  twenty-five  in  Central  America,  and  thirty -seven 
in  South  America.  Thus,  taken  altogether,  there  are  about  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  volcanoes  situated  on  the  oreat  continental 
lands  of  the  globe,  while  nearly  twice  as  many  occur  upon  the 
islands  scattered  over  the  various  oceans. 

ASIATIC    INLAND     VOLCANOES 

Upon  examining  further  into  the  distribution  of  the  conti- 
nental volcanoes,  another  very  interesting  fact  presents  itself.  The 
volcanoes  are  in  almost  every  instance  situated  either  close  to  the 
coasts  of  the  continent,  or  at  no  great  distance  from  them.  There 
are,  indeed,  only  two  exceptions  to  this  rule.  In  the  great  and 
almost  wholly  unexplored  table-land  lying  between  Siberia  and 
Tibet  four  volcanoes  are  said  to  exist,  and  in  the  Chinese  province 
of  Manchuria  several  others.  More  reliable  information  is,  how- 
ever, needed  concerning  these  volcanoes. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  all  the  oceanic  islands 
which  are  not  coral-reefs  are  composed  of  volcanic  rocks ;  and 
many  of  these  oceanic  islands,  as  well  as  others  lying  near  the 
shores  of  the  continents,  contain  active  volcanoes. 

Through  the  midst  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  runs  a  ridge,  which, 
by  the  soundings  of  the  various  exploring  vessels  sent  out  in  recent 


2i6  ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

years,  has  been  shown  to  divide  the  ocean  longitudinally  into  two 
basins.  Upon  this  great  ridge,  and  the  spurs  proceeding  from  it, 
rise  numerous  mountainous  masses,  which  constitute  the  well- 
known  Atlantic  islands  and  groups  of  islands.  All  of  these  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  among  them  are  numerous  active  volcanoes. 
The  Island  of  Jan  Mayen  contains  an  active  volcano,  and  Iceland 
contains  thirteen,  and  not  improbably  more  ;  the  Azores  have  six 
active  volcanoes,  the  Canaries  three  ;  while  about  eight  volcanoes 
lie  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  In  the  West  Indies  there  are  six 
active  volcanoes ;  and  three  submarine  volcanoes  have  been 
recorded  within  the  limits  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Altogether,  no 
less  than  forty  active  volcanoes  are  situated  upon  the  great  subma- 
rine ridges  which  traverse  the  Atlantic  longitudinally. 

But  alonof  the  same  line  the  number  of  extinct  volcanoes  is  far 
greater,  and  there  are  not  wanting  proofs  that  the  volcanoes  which 
are  still  active  are  approaching  the  condition  of  extinction. 

VOLCANOES    OF    THE    PACIFIC 

If  the  great  medial  chain  of  the  Atlantic  presents  us  with  an 
example  of  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains  verging  on  extinction, 
we  have  in  the  line  of  islands  separating  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans  an  example  of  a  similar  range  of  volcanic  vents  which  are 
in  a  condition  of  the  greatest  activity.  In  the  peninsula  of  Kam- 
chatka there  are  twelve  active  volcanoes,  in  the  Aleutian  Islands 
thirty-one,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  three.  The  chain  of  the 
Kuriles  contains  at  least  ten  active  volcanoes;  the  Japanese  Islands 
and  the  islands  to  the  south  of  Japan  twenty-five.  The  great  group 
of  islands  lying  to  the  south-east  of  the  Asiatic  continent  is  at  the 
present  time  the  grandest  focus  of  volcanic  activity  upon  the  globe. 
No  less  than  fifty  active  volcanoes  occur  here. 


ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 


217 


Farther  south,  the  same  chain  is  probably  continued  by  the 
four  active  volcanoes  of  New  Guinea,  one  or  more  submarine  vol- 
canoes, and  several  vents  in  New  Britain,  the  Solomon  Isles,  and 
the  New  Hebrides,  the  three  active  volcanoes  of  New  Zealand,  and 
possibly  by  Mount  Erebus  and  Mount  Terror  in  the  Antarctic 
region.     Altogether,  no  less  than  150  active  volcanoes  exist  in  the 


MOUNT  EREBUS. 

Two  volcanoes  exist  in  the  frozen  seas  of  the  Antarctic  zone.  Mount  Erebus  and  Mount  Terror,  whose  smoking 

summits  indicate  a  strange  conjunction  of  the  forces  of  fire  and  frost. 

chain  of  islands  which  stretch  from  Behring's  Straits  down  to  the 
Antarctic  circle  ;  and  if  we  include  the  volcanoes  on  Indian  and 
Pacific  Islands  which  appear  to  be  situated  on  lines  branching  from 
this  particular  band,  we  shall  not  be  wrong  in  the  assertion  that 
this  great  system  of  volcanic  mountains  includes  at  least  one  half 
of  the  habitually  active  vents  of  the  globe.  In  addition  to  the 
active  vents,  there  are  here  several  hundred  very  perfect  volcanic 


2i8  ACTIVE   VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

cones,   many  of  which   appear   to   have   recently  become   extinct, 
though  some  of  them  may  be  merely  dormant,  biding  their  time. 

A  third  series  of  volcanoes  starts  from  the  neig^hborhood 
of  Behring's  Straits,  and  stretches  along  the  whole  western  coast 
of  the  American  continent.  This  is  much  less  continuous,  but 
nevertheless  very  important,  and  contains,  with  its  branches,  nearly 
a  hundred  active  volcanoes.  On  the  north  this  orreat  band  is 
almost  united  with  the  one  we  have  already  described  by  the  chain 
of  the  Aleutian  and  Alaska  volcanoes.  In  British  Columbia 
about  the  parallel  of  60°  N.  there  exist  a  number  of  volcanic 
mountains,  one  of  which,  Mount  St.  Elias,  is  believed  to  be  18,000 
feet  in  height.  Farther  south,  in  the  territory  of  the  United 
States,  a  number  of  grand  volcanic  mountains  exist,  some  of  which 
are  probably  still  active,  for  geysers  and  other  manifestations  of 
volcanic  activity  abound.  From  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  California  an  almost  continuous  chain  of  volcanoes 
stretches  through  Mexico  and  Gautemala,  and  from  this  part  of 
the  volcanic  band  a  branch  is  given  off  which  passes  through  the 
West  Indies,  and  contains  the  volcanoes  which  have  so  recently 
given  evidence  of  their  vital  activity. 

In  South  America  the  line  is  continued  by  the  active  volca 
noes  of  Ecuador,  Bolivia  and  Chili,  but  at  many  intermediate 
points  in  the  chain  of  the  Andes  extinct  volcanoes  occur,  which  to 
a  great  extent  fill  up  the  gaps  in  the  series.  A  small  offshoot  to 
the  westward  passes  through  the  Galapagos  Islands.  The  great 
band  of  volcanoes  which  stretches  through  the  American  continent 
is  second  only  in  importance,  and  in  the  activity  of  its  vents,  to 
the  band  which  divides  the  Pacific  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  third  volcanic  band  of  the  globe  is  that,  already  spoken 
of,  which  traverses  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  north  to  south.     This 


ACTIVE   VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 


219 


series  of  volcanic  mountains  is  much  more  broken  and  interrupted 
than  the  other  two,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  its  vents  are  ex- 
tinct. It  attained  its  condition  of  maximum  activity  during  the 
distant  period  of  the  Miocene,  and  now  appears  to  be  passing  into 
a  state  of  gradual  extinction. 

Beginning  in  the  north  with  the  volcanic  rocks  of  Greenland 
and  Bear  Island,  we  pass  southwards,  by  way  of  Jan  Mayen,  Ice- 


MOUNT  HECLA— ICELAND. 

One  of  the  two  most  famous  of  the  great  Icelandic  volcanoes. 

land  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  to  the  Hebrides  and  the  north  of  Ire- 
land. Thence,  by  way  of  the  Azores,  the  Canaries  and  the  Cape 
de  Verde  Islands,  with  some  active  vents,  we  pass  to  the  ruined 
volcanoes  of  St.  Paul,  Fernando  de  Noronha,  Ascension,  St.  He- 
lena, Trinidad  and  Tristan  da  Cunha.  From  this  great  Atlantic 
band  two  branches  proceed  to  the  eastward,  one  through  Central 
Europe,  where  all  the  vents  are  now  extinct,  and  the  other  through 


220  ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

the  Mediterranean  to  Asia  Minor,  the  great  majority  of  the  volca- 
noes  along  the  latter  line  being  now  extinct,  though  a  few  are  still 
active.  The  volcanoes  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  may  be 
regarded  as  situated  on  another  branch  from  this  Atlantic  volcanic 
band.  The  number  of  active  volcanoes  on  this  Atlantic  band  and 
its  branches,  exclusive  of  those  in  the  West  Indies,  does  not  exceed 
fifty. 

THIAN    SHAN    AND    HAWAIIAN    VOLCANOES 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  volcanoes  of 
the  globe  not  only  usually  assume  a  linear  arrangement,  but  nearly 
the  whole  of  them  can  be  shown  to  be  thrown  up  along  three  well- 
marked  bands  and  the  branches  proceeding  from  them.  The  first 
and  most  important  of  these  bands  is  nearly  10,000  miles  in  length, 
and  with  its  branches  contains  more  than  150  active  volcanoes  ;  the 
second  is  8,000  miles  in  length,  and  includes  about  100  active  vol- 
canoes;  the  third  is  much  more  broken  and  interrupted,  extends  to 
a  length  of  nearly  1,000  miles,  and  contains  about  50  active  vents. 
The  volcanoes  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  with  Mauritius, 
Bourbon,  Rodriguez,  and  the  vents  along  the  line  of  the  Red  Sea, 
may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  fourth  and  subordinate  band. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  covered  by  a  net- 
work of  volcanic  bands,  all  of  which  traverse  it  in  sinuous  lines 
with  a  general  north-and-south  direction,  giving  off  branches  which 
often  run  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  sometimes  appear  to  form  a 
connection  between  the  great  bands. 

To  this  rule  of  the  linear  arrangement  of  the  volcanic  vents 
of  the  globe,  and  their  accumulation  along  certain  well-marked 
bands,  there  are  two  very  striking  exceptions,  which  we  must  now 
proceed  to  notice. 


ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH  221 

In  the  very  centre  of  the  continent  formed  by  Europe  and 
Asia,  the  largest  unbroken  land-mass  of  the  globe,  there  rises  from 
the  great  central  plateau  the  remarkable  volcanoes  of  the  Thian 
Shan  Range.  The  existence  of  these  volcanoes,  of  which  only 
obscure  traditional  accounts  had  reached  Europe  before  the  year 
1858,  appears  to  be  completely  established  by  the  researches  of 
recent  Russian  and  Swedish  travelers.  Three  volcanic  vents  appear 
to  exist  in  this  region,  and  other  volcanic  phenomena  have  been 
stated  to  occur  in  the  great  plateau  of  Central  Asia,  but  the  exist- 
ence of  the  latter  appears  to  rest  on  very  doubtful  evidence.  The 
only  accounts  which  we  have  of  the  eruptions  of  these  Thian  Shan 
volcanoes  are  contained  in  Chinese  histories  and  treatises  on  geog- 
raphy. 

The  second  exceptionally  situated  volcanic  group  is  that  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  While  the  Thian  Shan  volcanoes  rise  in 
the  centre  of  the  largest  unbroken  land-mass,  and  stand  on  the  edge 
of  the  loftiest  and  greatest  plateau  in  the  world,  the  volcanoes  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  rise  in  the  northern  centre  of  the  largest  ocean 
and  from  almost  the  greatest  depths  in  that  ocean.  All  round  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  the  sea  has  a  depth  of  from  2,000  to  3,000  fath- 
oms, and  the  island-group  culminates  in  several  volcanic  cones, 
which  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  14,000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
The  volcanoes  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  unsurpassed  in  height 
and  bulk  by  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 

With  the  exception  of  the  two  isolated  groups  of  the  Thian 
Shan  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  nearly  all  the  active  volcanoes  of 
the  globe  are  situated  near  the  limits  which  separate  the  great  land- 
and-water-masses  of  the  globe — that  is  to  say,  they  occur  either  on 
the  parts  of  continents  not  far  removed  from  their  coast-lines,  or 
on  islands  in  the  ocean  not  very  far  distant  from  the  shores.     The 


222  ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

fact  of  the  general  proximity  of  volcanoes  to  the  sea  is  one  which 
has  frequently  been  pointed  out  by  geographers,  and  may  now  be 
regarded  as  being  thoroughly  established. 

VOLCANOES    PARALLEL    TO    MOUNTAIN    CHAINS 

Many  of  the  grandest  mountain-chains  have  bands  of  vol- 
canoes lying  parallel  to  them.  This  is  strikingly  exhibited  by  the 
great  mountain-masses  which  lie  on  the  western  side  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent.  The  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Andes  consist  of 
folded  and  crumpled  masses  of  altered  strata  which,  by  the  action 
of  denuding  forces,  have  been  carved  into  series  of  ridges  and  sum- 
mits. At  many  points,  however,  along  the  sides  of  these  great 
chains  we  find  that  fissures  have  been  opened  and  lines  of  vol- 
canoes formed,  from  which  enormous  quantities  of  lava  have 
flowed  and  covered  great  tracts  of  country. 

This  is  especially  marked  in  the  Snake  River  plain  of  Idaho, 
in  the  western  United  States.  In  this,  and  the  adjoining  regions 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  an  enormous  tract  of  country  has  been 
overflowed  by  lava  in  a  late  geological  period,  the  surface  covered 
being  estimated  to  have  a  larger  area  than  France  and  Great  Britain 
combined.  The  Snake  River  cuts  through  it  in  a  series  of  pictur- 
esque gorges  and  rapids,  enabling  us  to  estimate  its  thickness, 
which  is  considered  to  average  4000  feet.  Looked  at  from  any 
point  on  its  surface,  one  of  these  lava-plains  appears  as  a  vast  level 
surface,  like  that  of  a  lake  bottom.  This  uniformity  has  been  pro- 
duced either  by  the  lava  rolling  over  a  plain  or  lake  bottom,  or  by 
the  complete  effacement  of  an  original,  undulating  contour  of  the 
ground  under  hundreds  or  thousands  of  feet  of  lava  in  successive 
sheets.  The  lava,  rolling  up  to  the  base  of  the  mountains,  has 
followed  the  sinuosities  of  their   margin,  as  the  waters  of  a  lake 


ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH  223 

follow  Its  promontories  and  bays.  Similar  conditions  exist  along 
the  Sierra  Nevada  range  of  California,  and  to  some  extent  placer 
mining  has  gone  on  under  immense  beds  of  lava,  by  a  process  of 
tunneling  beneath  the  volcanic  rock. 

In  some  localities  the  volcanoes  are  of  such  height  and  dimen- 
sions as  to  overlook  and  dwarf  the  mountain-ranges  by  the  side  of 
which  they  lie.  Some  of  the  volcanoes  lying  parallel  to  the  great 
American  axis  appear  to  be  quite  extinct,  while  others  are  in  full 
activity.  In  the  Eastern  continent  we  find  still  more  striking  exam- 
ples of  parallelism  between  great  mountain-chains  and  the  lands 
along  which  volcanic  activity  is  exhibited — volcanoes,  active  or 
extinct,  following  the  line  of  the  great  east  and  west  chains  which 
extend  through  southern  Europe  and  Asia.  There  are  some  other 
volcanic  bands  which  exhibit  a  similar  parallelism  with  mountain 
chains  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  volcanoes  between  w^hich 
and  the  nearest  mountain-axis  no  such  connection  can  be  traced. 

AREAS    OF    UPHEAVAL    AND    SUBSIDENCE 

There  is  one  other  fact  concerning  the  mode  of  distribution  of 
volcanoes  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe,  to  which  we  must  allude. 
By  a  study  of  the  evidences  presented  by  coral-reefs,  raised 
beaches,  submerged  forests,  and  other  phenomena  of  a  simdar  kind, 
it  can  be  shown  that  certain  wide  areas  of  the  land  and  of  the 
ocean-floor  are  at  the  present  time  in  a  state  of  subsidence,  while 
other  equally  large  areas  are  being  upheaved.  And  the  observa- 
tions of  the  geologist  prove  that  similar  upward  and  downward 
movements  of  portions  of  the  earth's  crust  have  been  going  on 
through  all  geological  times. 

Now,  as  Mr.  Darwin  has  so  well  shown  in  his  work  on  "  Coral- 
Reefs,"  if  we  trace  upon  a  map  the  areas   of  the   earth's  surface 


224  ACTIVE  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  EARTH 

which  are  undergoing  upheaval  and  subsidence  respectively,  we 
shall  find  that  nearly  all  the  active  volcanoes  of  the  globe  are  sit- 
uated upon  rising  areas,  and  that  volcanic  phenomena  are  con- 
spicuously absent  from  those  parts  of  the  earth's  crust  which  can  be 
proved  at  the  present  day  to  be  undergoing  depression. 

The  remarkable  linear  arrangement  of  volcanic  vents  has  a 
significance  that  is  well  worthy  of  fuller  consideration.  There  are 
facts  known  which  point  to  the  cause  of  this  state  of  affairs.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  small  cones  of  scoriae  to  be  seen  following  lines 
on  the  flanks  or  at  the  base  of  a  great  volcanic  mountain.  These 
are  undoubtedly  lines  of  fissure,  caused  by  the  subterranean  forces. 
In  fact,  such  fissures  have  been  seen  opening  on  the  sides  of  Mount 
Etna,  in  whose  bottom  could  be  seen  the  glowing  lava.  Along 
these  fissures,  in  a  few  days,  scoriae  cones  appeared  ;  on  one  occa- 
sion no  less  than  thirty-six  in  number. 

It  is  believed  by  geologists  that  the  linear  systems  of  volcanoes 
are  ranged  along  similar  lines  of  fissure  in  the  earth's  crust — enor- 
mous breaks,  extending  for  thousands  of  miles,  and  the  result  of  in- 
ternal energies  acting  through  vast  periods  of  time.  Along  these 
immense  fissures  in  the  earth's  rock-crust  there  appear,  in  place  of 
small  scoriae  cones,  great  volcanoes,  built  up  through  the  ages  by  a 
series  of  powerful  eruptions,  and  only  ceasing  to  spout  fire  them- 
selves when  the  portion  of  the  great  crack  upon  which  they  lie  is 
closed.  The  greatest  of  these  fissures  is  that  along  the  vast  sin- 
uous band  of  volcanoes  extending  from  near  the  Arctic  circle  at 
Behring's  Straits  to  the  Antarctic  circle  at  South  Victoria  Land, 
not  far  from  half  round  the  earth.  It  doubtless  marks  the  line  of 
mighty  forces  which  have  been  active  for  millions  of  years.. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Underground  Waters  and  Their  Relation  to 

Volcanoes. 

THE  crust  of  the  earth  is  only  In  a  general  sense  a  solid  mass. 
In  many  localities  it  might  be  compared  to  a  sponge,  full  of 
cavities  and  ramifying  passages,  and  freely  permeable  to 
liquids.  While  in  many  places  it  is  composed  of  dense  rock  or  firm 
clay,  through  which  water  cannot  make  its  way,  in  others  it  is  rent 
and  splintered,  and  large  cavities  here  and  there  exist.  Again, 
much  of  the  material  of  the  crust  is  porous,  water  passing  some- 
what freely  through  it ;  and  in  other  localities  water  makes  its  way 
by  a  process  of  solution,  dissolving  and  carrying  ofT  certain  con- 
stituents of  the  rocks.  As  a  result  of  this  permeable  condition 
much  of  the  water  which  falls  upon  the  earth's  surface  makes  its 
way  into  the  interior,  penetrating  the  pores  and  cavities  of  the 
crust,  which  seems  to  be  fully  saturated  with  water. 

What  may  be  the  actual  quantity  of  water  thus  held  in  the 
earth's  crust  it  is  far  beyond  the  present  power  of  science  to  decide. 
It  must  be  very  great,  since,  in  addition  to  the  free  liquid,  water 
exists  as  a  constituent  of  the  hardest  rocks.  If  restored  to  the 
surface  it  would  doubtless  be  sufficient  to  raise  considerably  the 
ocean  level,  and  perhaps  to  flood  all  the  lower  portions  of  the  dry 
land.  In  that  remote  period  when  the  heated  condition  of  the 
crust  prevented  the  inflow  of  water,  and  the  whole  of  earth's  liquid 

element  swelled  the  ocean,  such  a  condition  very  probably  existed. 
15  225 


226  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

For  ages,  as  the  crust  cooled,  the  waters  made  their  way  Into  the 
interior,  until  they  reached  a  considerable  depth,  and  the  depres- 
sion of  the  ocean  level  permitted  a  large  section  of  the  surface  to 
emerge  as  dry  land.  One  important  result  of  this  cooling  of  the 
surface  and  narrowing  of  the  oceanic  basins  has  been  a  decrease  in 
evaporation  and  rainfall  and  a  localization  in  the  distribution  of 
atmospheric  waters,  so  that  large  regions  of  the  surface  have  be- 
come deserts.  This  process  of  desiccation  will  doubtless  continue 
in  the  future,  but  with  great  slowness,  since  the  cooling  of  the 
earth's  crust  has  become  a  very  deliberate  operation. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    SUBTERRANEAN    WATERS 

The  quantity  and  distribution  of  the  liquid  contents  of  the 
crust  are  very  imperfectly  known.  We  can  become  aware  of  their 
distribution  only  by  the.  upflow  of  water  through  springs  and  the 
piercing  of  the  surface  with  wells.  It  is  of  interest  to  find  that 
water  exists  at  some  level  in  almost  every  locality  where  such  a 
well  has  been  sunk,  and  that  it  is  abundant  at  some  of  the  greatest 
depths  that  have  been  reached,  frequently  under  sufficient  pressure 
to  rise  to  the  surface.  There  are,  of  course,  vast  reaches  of  strata 
destitute  of  water  in  a  free  state,  but  these  dense  strata  have  failed 
to  check  the  downflow  of  the  liquid  element.  Pierce  them,  and 
water  is  found  below  ;  pierce  still  lower  strata,  and  water  again  out- 
flows, often  in  large  volume.  Like  the  rocks  themselves,  the  liquid 
contents  of  the  crust  seem  to  exist  in  successive  strata,  growing 
warmer  as  they  lie  at  greater  depths,  and  usually  bearing  mineral 
matter  in  solution,  the  product  of  the  rocks  through  which  they 
have  made  their  way. 

ANALOGY    OF    THE    EARTH    TO    THE    HUMAN    BODY 

An  interesting  analogy  may  be  shown  to  exist  between  the 
crust  of  the  earth  and  the  human  body.  The  latter,  solid  exteri- 
orly,   is    everywhere    permeated    with  streams  of    flowing    liquid, 


UNDERGROUND  WATERS  227 

which  pours  forfh  wherever  the  surface  is  pierced.  In  the  same 
manner,  if  we  pierce  the  earth,  its  Hfe  blood  gushes  out,  now  flow- 
ing- quietly,  as  from  a  vein,  now  spirting  freely,  as  from  an  artery. 
Wherever  we  break  through  the  skin  of  the  great  body  of  the 
earth  the  same  results  appear.  In  some  of  the  most  unpromising 
localities  an  abundance  of  subterranean  water  seems  to  exist.  Even 
under  the  arid  surface  of  the  Sahara,  the  most  extended  of  the  earth's 
deserts,  there  appears  to  be  an  abundant  supply  of  water  at  a  mod- 
erate depth,  which  oozes  forth  freely  at  almost  every  point  where 
an  artesian  well  is  sunk.  The  arid  reorion  of  Southern  California 
is  partly  irrigated  from  a  similar  subterranean  stratum,  and  like  con- 
ditions exist  in  other  desert  regions  of  the  earth's  surface,  natural 
springs  oozing  up  where  artificial  ones  have  not  been  made. 

From  this  we  may  deduce  that,  so  far  as  subterranean  water  is 
concerned,  there  is  no  marked  difference  between  regions  of 
abundant  rainfall  and  those  of  great  aridity.  Dry  as  the  soil  may 
be  in  one  locality,  moist  as  it  may  be  in  another,  the  boring-rod  of 
the  well-driver  reveals  a  strikingly  homogeneous  condition  in  the 
depths  of  the  crust,  and  an  oasis  is  formed  in  the  desert  wherever 
there  is  a  passage  upward  for  the  underground  waters. 

MOVEMENTS    OF    WATERS    IN    THE    EARTh's    CRUST 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this.  Such  a  distribution  of 
the  subterranean  waters  is  what  we  might  naturally  expect  to  find. 
Once  penetrate  to  the  sub-surface  and  we  reach  a  region  in  which 
the  diverse  influences  of  aridity  and  precipitation  fail  to  assert 
themselves.  Though  the  surface  distribution  of  water  may  be 
localized,  the  movement  beneath  the  surface  is  likely  to  be  general, 
the  water  following  every  channel  and  making  its  way  by  multi- 
tudinous avenues  to  regions  far  removed  from  its  place  of  origin. 


228  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

While  the  surface  water  may  flow  through  river  channels  to  desert 
regions,  the  underground  distribution  is  Hkely  to  be  more  general, 
since,  while  the  surface  represents  but  a  single  stratum,  there  are 
many  underground  strata,  each  affording  special  opportunities  for 
distribution.  While  the  arid  regions  of  the  surface  are  those  of 
small  rainfall,  those  of  the  interior  are  due  to  impermeable  rock 
strata,  and  the  two  conditions  are  not  likely  to  coincide.  It  is  quite 
conceivable,  indeed,  that  there  may  be  a  far  more  abundant  supply 
of  water  beneath  a  desert  than  beneath  a  well-watered  region,  if 
the  strata  in  the  former  case  are  more  permeable  than  in  the  latter. 
The  movements  of  subterranean  waters  have  been  oroine  on  for 
ages,  and  their  existing  distribution  is  dependent  far  more  upon 
freedom  of  underground  flow  than  upon  variation  in  surface  rain- 
fall. 

HOW    WATER    EXISTS    IN    THE    CRUST 

If,  now,  we  come  to  consider  the  conditions  under  which  the 
interior  water  exists,  it  is  impossible  to  accept  a  widespread  popu- 
lar conclusion  to  the  effect  that  flowing  streams  and  rivers  of  water 
exist  in  the  depths  of  the  earth's  crust.  Streams  of  this  character 
are  found  in  great  caverns,  and  this  has  doubtless  led  to  the  con- 
ception that  the  underground  waters  exist  largely  as  rivulets  or 
rivers,  flowing  through  interior  channels  as  the  blood  flows  through 
the  veins. 

The  fact  is,  however,  that  apart  from  the  streams  found  in  the 
cavities  in  limestone  strata,  which  must  somewhere  find  a  passage 
to  the  surface,  such  conditions  do  not  and  cannot  exist.  There  are 
no  such  deep-lying  streams,  no  great  rivers  flowing  within  the  earth's 
crust ;  the  subterranean  waters  being  either  at  rest,  or  moving 
sluggishly  as  they  are  drawn  off. 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS  229 

The  interior  of  the  crust  was,  in  all  probability,  saturated  with 
water  in  far  remote  times,  and  it  is  impossible  for  this  water  to 
move  except  to  the  extent  that  it  finds  a  surface  vent.  It  is  prob- 
ably contained  almost  wholly  in  porous  rocks,  and  but  to  a  small 
extent  in  channels  and  cavities.  For  the  same  reason  the  inflow  is 
limited,  being  dependent  upon  the  outflow.  A  saturated  sponge 
can  take  in  no  more  water,  even  if  plunged  into  a  full  vessel.  And 
there  can  be  no  movement  of  water  into  its  interior,  except  to  the 
extent  that  water  escapes  from  its  surface.  In  like  manner,  if  the 
earth's  crust  be  once  saturated,  all  its  pores  and  cavities  filled,  no 
more  water  can  enter,  and  there  can  be  no  movement  of  the  water 
within  except  to  the  extent  that  the  contained  liquid  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  escape. 

CHANNELS    OF     ESCAPE 

The  most  evident  channels  of  escape  are  those  of  springs, 
yielding  cold,  warm  or  hot  water  as  they  come  from  varied  depths. 
These  are  rarely  sufficient  in  number  or  volume  to  create  any  active 
interior  movement,  and  most  generally  have  to  do  with  superficial 
strata.  They  are  not  confined  to  the  land  surface,  but  frequently 
open  under  water,  occasionally  forming  the  sole  supply  of  lakes. 
As  one  example  of  this  may  be  instanced  Lake  Bombon,  in  the 
island  of  Luzon,  which  has  no  visible  inflow,  but  has  a  consider- 
able river  for  its  outflow. 

The  well  may  be  regarded  as  an  artificial  spring,  which  taps 
water  strata  of  varied  depths,  occasionally,  no  doubt,  reaching  very 
ancient  accumulations,  which  have  lain  undisturbed  for  ages.  If 
irrigation  wells  increase  very  largely  in  number,  as  they  seem  likely 
to  do  in  the  future,  they  may  give  rise  to  a  somewhat  active  move- 
ment of  the  interior  waters.  The  artesian  outflow  is,  of  course, 
limited  in  quantity,  since  the  sources  from  which  it  draws  need  to 


27,0  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

be  renewed  from  the  surface,  and  the  seepage  downward  is  a 
deHberate  process  and  not  calculated  to  yield  a  rapid  new  supply. 
The  quantity  of  water  to  be  obtained  from  the  earth's  crust  is, 
therefore,  far  from  inexhaustible,  and  represents  a  supply  that  has 
been  gathering  for  ages.  It  may  be  said  further  that  this  water 
cannot  reach  the  surface  except  through  the  influence  of  pressure, 
this  being  usually,  perhaps  solely,  a  hydrostatic  pressure  operating 
from  some  supply  of  water  at  a  higher  level,  and  indicating  that 
the  interior  waters  are  to  a  large  extent  in  continuous  contact.  It 
may  be,  indeed,  that  the  pressure  of  natural  gas  has  its  share  in  the 
upflow  of  water,  as  it  probably  has  in  that  of  petroleum. 

DEPTH    OF    DESCENT 

As  regards  the  depth  to  which  water  can  descend  in  the 
earth's  crust,  it  is  to  a  large  extent  an  open  question.  Professor 
King,  in  his  able  study  of  this  subject,  considers  that  water  may 
reach  to  a  depth  of  more  than  10,000  feet — how  much  more  he 
does  not  venture  to  suggest.  If  the  crust  were  permeable  to  an 
indefinite  distance  downward,  and  water  could  descend  unchecked, 
a  vast  volume  would  be  necessary  to  produce  saturation,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  rocks  grow  denser  and  less  permeable  as 
depth  increases.  The  elevation  of  mountain  ranges  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  thick  strata  of  new  rock  material  have  undoubtedly  greatly 
compressed  the  underlying  rocks,  decreased  their  porosity,  and 
forced  out  much  of  their  more  ancient  water  contents,  and  it  is 
possible  that  in  this  way  a  limiting  layer  may  eventually  be  formed 
through  which  no  water  can  penetrate.  Yet  at  any  time  the  rend- 
ing action  of  earthquakes  seems  capable  of  opening  vast  rents  in 
the  deeper  rock  layers,  producing  cavities  sufficient  to  contain  large 
bodies  of  water,  and  to  permit  the  descent  of  this  liquid  element  to 
much  greater  depths. 


UNDERGROUND  WATERS  2 -a 


o' 


There  appears  to  be  a  limiting  agency  different  from  this,  and 
one  not  subject  to  the  action  of  chance  or  accident,  or  to  the  pos- 
sible existence  of  porous  rocks  at  a  much  lower  level  than  has  been 
estimated.  This  is  a  stratum  of  heat,  not  of  dense  rock,  and  one 
that  seems  likely  to  constitute  an  effectual  check  to  the  descent  of 
water,  its  action  being  to  reverse  the  descending  tendency  of  the 
liquid  substance  and  convert  it  into  an  ascending  tendency.  In 
other  words,  the  heat  at  a  certain  depth  must  be  sufficient  to  con- 
vert the  water  into  steam,  which  seeks  to  force  itself  upward  with 
an  energy  greater  than  that  with  which  the  superincumbent  water 
seeks  to  descend.  The  pressure  of  water  at  great  depths,  it  is 
true,  considerably  raises  the  evaporating  point,  but  there  is  a  limit 
of  temperature  beyond  which  no  amount  of  pressure  can  overcome 
the  tendency  to  vaporize,  and  where  this  degree  of  heat  is  reached 
the  possible  descent  of  water  comes  to  an  end. 

SUBTERRANEAN    TEMPERATURE    VARIES    IN    DIFFERENT    REGIONS 

There  are  facts  which  seem  to  indicate  that  this  limiting  layer 
of  temperature  varies  in  depth  to  a  large  extent  in  different  regions 
of  the  earth.  In  the  Yellowstone  Valley,  for  instance,  the 
phenomena  might  be  held  to  prove  that  the  inflowing  water  is 
converted  into  steam  at  a  very  moderate  depth.  The  multitude  of 
hot  springs,  the  leaping  geysers,  the  whole  phenomena  of  the 
valley,  appear  to  indicate  a  high  degree  of  heat  at  no  great  distance 
beneath  the  surface,  a  temperature  sufficient  to  vaporize  the 
descending  water  and  hurl  it  up  again  in  boiling  fountains.  And 
the  same  might  be  held  to  be  the  case  in  the  various  other  geyser 
regions  of  the  earth. 

This  is  only  one  of  the  phenomena  supposed  to  be  due  to  the 
conflict   between  water  and   heat   in  the  earth's  crust.     There  is 


232  UNDERGROUND  WATERS 

another  and  a  far  more  important  one,  that  of  volcanic  eruptions, 
which  are  by  many  held  to  be  results  of  the  conditions  here  con- 
sidered. In  the  geyser,  the  steam  and  water  have  open  vents  and 
are  free  to  escape.  In  the  volcano  the  vents  are  closed  and  the 
imprisoned  giant  of  steam  has  to  force  its  way  to  the  surface.  The 
boiling  lava,  which  here  replaces  the  hot  water  of  the  geysers,  is 
saturated  with  the  water  to  which  its  force  of  uplift  is  due,  and  this, 
as  it  reaches  the  surface,  flashes  again  into  steam  and  rends  the 
lava  into  dust,  or  so-called  ashes.  The  earthquake,  which  so  often 
accompanies  the  eruption,  is  a  result  of  the  same  cause,  and  testifies 
to  the  throes  of  the  imprisoned  giant  in  its  mighty  effort  to  break 
its  bonds.  The  whole  phenomenon  is  a  striking  example  of  the 
limitation  of  the  descent  of  water  through  the  influence  of  internal 
heat.  This  view,  of  course,  is  hypothetical,  but  as  an  instance  in 
its  favor  we  may  refer  to  the  remarkable  eruption  of  Krakatoa  in 
1883.  The  suddenness  and  extreme  violence  of  this  eruption  sug- 
gest the  probability  that  some  new  opened  crevice  or  cavity 
admitted  the  ocean  waters  in  great  volume  to  the  heated  strata  of 
the  mountain  depths,  and  that  these  waters  were  converted  explo- 
sively into  steam,  which  expanded  with  a  force  sufficient  to  blow 
the  mountain  into  fragments  and  hurl  its  debris  miles  into  the  air. 

THE    EXISTENCE    OF    GEYSERS    AND    VOLCANOES 

While  it  is  possible  that  the  existence  of  geysers  and  volcanoes 
indicates  marked  differences  in  the  depth  of  the  superheated  rock 
layer,  this  is  by  no  means  necessarily  the  case.  It  may  simply 
indicate  that  they  occur  in  the  localities  in  which  the  crust  is 
specially  permeable  to  water,  and  that  such  results  are  likely  to 
occur  wherever  water  is  able  to  make  its  way  downward  to  a  suffi- 
cient depth.      It  may  be  suggested  that  unbroken  strata  of  dense 


UNDERGROUND   WATERS  233 

rock  check  the  deep  descent  of  water  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  the  earth's  crust,  and  that  it  is  able  to  reach  the  superheated 
strata  only  in  the  limited  localities  to  which  the  phenomena  in 
question  are  confined,  and  also  that  some  of  the  effects  named  are 
likely  to  appear  wherever  and  whenever  the  subterranean  water 
does  penetrate  to  this  depth. 

These  considerations  lead  to  the  interesting:  conclusion  that 
the  most  vigorous  activities  of  the  earth's  crust — the.  volcanic  erup- 
tion, the  earthquake  and  the  geyser — are  largely  due  to  the  action 
of  subterranean  water.  The  same  may  be  said  of  other  activities 
of  the  crust.  The  slipping  of  strata,  to  which  some  earthquakes 
are  credited,  may  be  indirectly  caused  by  the  solvent  action  of  water, 
and  the  lateral  pressure  to  which  mountain  elevation  is  due  is  held 
to  be  a  result  of  surface  denudation  and  the  heaping  up  of  new 
strata  beneath  the  ocean  waters. 

IMPORTANT    SERVICE    RENDERED    BY    WATER 

There  is  a  second  very  important  service  rendered  by  water, 
that  of  the  cooling  of  the  earth's  crust.  In  the  primeval  period 
the  surface  waters  were  constantly  rising  as  vapor  and  conveying 
the  superficial  heat  upwards,  to  be  radiated  from  the  atmosphere 
into  space.  In  the  succeeding  period  the  subterranean  water  be- 
came engaged  in  similar  service.  Heated  in  the  lower  strata,  it 
rose  as  the  hot  spring  or  the  geyser,  and  in  the  form  of  explosive 
steam  it  hurled  great  masses  of  molten  rock  to  the  surface,  there 
to  yield  its  heat  to  the  air.  The  volume  of  heat  thus  conveyed  in 
a  century  to  the  surface  is  very  considerable,  and  in  former  times 
was  probably  much  more  so.  It  may  much  exceed  that  which 
reaches  the  surface  by  the  slow  process  of  conduction. 


234  UNDERGROUND   WATERS 

Subterranean  water  would  thus  appear  to  have  long  been  an 
agent  of  the  utmost  service  to  the  earth,  giving  rise  to  the  great 
activities  of  the  crust  and  aiding  essentially  in  cooling  its  interior. 
What  will  be  the  future  record  of  this  useful  agent  it  is  difficult  to 
say.  As  the  crust  continues  to  cool,  the  waters  may  make  their  way 
to  lower  depths,  unless  checked  by  a  general  layer  of  impermeable 
rock.  The  cooling  of  the  rocks  will  also  tend  to  make  them  more 
capable  of  water  absorption,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the 
ocean  waters  may  all  eventually  be  swallowed  up  in  this  way,  and 
the  earth  become  a  dry  and  dead  planet  like  the  moon. 

DISAPPEARANCE    OF    THE    OCEAN    WATERS 

This  at  least  we  can  be  sure  of,  that  if  such  an  event  takes 
place  it  will  be  at  some  very  remote  period  in  the  future.  The 
seepage  of  water  into  the  earth  has  long  been  decreasing  with  the 
decrease  in  the  area  of  rainfall.  If  the  oceans  should  grow  nar- 
rower by  the  partial  absorption  of  their  water,  the  rainless  area  will 
grow  still  more  extensive  and  the  area  of  seepage  become  more 
contracted.  Civilization  is  adding  to  this  effect  by  the  removal  of 
the  forests.  The  water  once  held  in  their  mold  and  gradually  pen- 
etratinor  the  surface  now  hastens  downward  to  the  streams  and  adds 
much  less  than  formerly  to  the  subterranean  supply.  As  desicca- 
tion increases  nature  will  continue  what  man  has  begun,  the  forest 
area  narrowine  and  the  waters  rushinor  with  less  resistance  to  the 
sea.  These  influences  must  greatly  check  the  possible  future  dis- 
appearance of  the  ocean  waters  within  the  crust,  and  whatever  the 
final  result  may  be,  many  millions  of  years  must  pass  before  the 
earth  can  become,  from  this  cause,  unfitted  for  the  habitation  of  man. 

Our  present  concern,  however,  is  with  the  part  played  by  waters 
in  volcanic  eruptions.     As  already  said,  this  is  very  great,  and  in 


UNDERGROUND   HEATERS  235 

one  form  or  other,  water  seems  to  be  the  chief  agent  In  volcanic  ac- 
tion. Converted  suddenly  and  explosively  into  steam,  when  in  any 
manner  it  makes  its  way  downward  to  the  region  of  molten  rock,  it 
forces  a  passage  upward  with  terrible  energy,  before  which  even  the 
solid  mountains  themselves  give  way.  As  already  said,  one  strik- 
ing example  of  this,  in  the  opinion  of  many  scientists,  was  seen  in 
the  frightful  explosion  of  Krakatoa.  Not  less  terrible,  and  still  more 
destructive  in  its  effects  was  that  of  Mont  Pelee  in  1902,  perhaps 
due  to  the  same  cause  and  of  which  a  full  account  has  been  given 
in  preceding  chapters. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Famous  Vesuvius  and  the  Destruction  of 

Pompeii. 

THE  famous  volcano  of  Southern  Italy  named  Vesuvius,  which 
is  now  so  constantly  in  eruption,  was  described  by  the  an- 
cients as  a  cone-shaped  mountain  with  a  flat  top,  on  which 
was  a  deep  circular  valley  filled  with  vines  and  grass,  and  sur- 
rounded by  high  precipices.  A  large  population  lived  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountain,  which  was  covered  with  beautiful  woods,  and  there 
were  fine  flourishing  cities  at  its  foot.  So  little  was  the  terrible  na- 
ture of  the  valley  on  the  top  understood,  that  in  a.  d.  72,  Spartacus, 
a  rebellious  Roman  gladiator,  encamped  there  with  some  thousands 
of  fighting  men,  and  the  Roman  soldiers  were  let  down  the  preci- 
pices in  order  to  surprise  and  capture  them. 

There  had  been  earthquakes  around  the  mountain,  and  one  of 
the  cities  had  been  nearly  destroyed  ;  but  no  one  was  prepared  for 
what  occurred  seven  years  after  the  defeat  of  Spartacus.  Suddenly, 
in  the  year  79  a.  d.,  a  terrific  rush  of  smoke,  steam,  and  fire 
belched  from  the  mountain's  summit  ;  one  side  of  the  valley  in 
which  Spartacus  had  encamped  was  blown  off,  and  its  rocks,  with 
vast  quantities  of  ashes,  burning  stones,  and  sand,  were  ejected  far 
into  the  sky.  They  then  spread  out  like  a  vast  pall,  and  fell  far 
and  wide.  For  eight  days  and  nights  this  went  on,  and  the  enorm- 
ous quantity  of  steam  sent  up,   together  with   the  deluge  of  rain 

that  fell,  produced  torrents  on  the  mountain-side,  which,  carrying 
236 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  237 

onward  the  fallen  ashes,  overwhelmed  everything  in  their  way. 
Sulphurous  vapors  filled  the  air  and  violent  tremblings  of  the  earth 
were  constant. 

A  city  six  miles  off  was  speedily  rendered  uninhabitable,  and 
was  destroyed  by  the  falling  stones  ;  but  two  others— Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii — which  already  had  suffered  from  the  down-pour  of 
ashes,  were  gradually  filled  with  a  flood  of  water,  sand,  and  ashes, 
which  came  down  the  side  of  the  volcano,  and  covering  them  entirely. 

BURIED    CITIES    EXCAVATED. 

The  difference  in  ease  of  excavation  is  due  to  the  following 
circumstance.  Herculaneum  being  several  miles  nearer  the  crater, 
was  buried  in  a  far  more  consistent  substance,  seemingly  composed 
of  volcanic  ashes  cemented  by  mud;  Pompeii,  on  the  contrary,  was 
buried  only  in  ashes  and  loose  stones.  The  casts  of  statues  found 
in  Herculaneum  show  the  plastic  character  of  the  material  that  fell 
there,  which  time  has  hardened  to  rock-like  consistency. 

These  statues  represented  Hercules  and  Cleopatra,  and  the 
theatre  proved  to  be  that  of  the  long-lost  city  of  Herculaneum. 
The  site  of  Pompeii  was  not  discovered  until  forty  years  after- 
ward, but  work  there  proved  far  easier  than  at  Herculaneum,  and 
more  progress  was  made  in  bringing  it  back  to  the  light  of  day. 

The  less  solid  covering  of  Pompeii  has  greatly  facilitated  the 
work  of  excavation,  and  a  great  part  of  the  city  has  been  laid  bare. 
Many  of  its  public  buildings  and  private  residences  are  now  visible, 
and  some  whole  streets  have  been  cleared,  while  a  multitude  of 
interesting  relics  have  been  found.  Among  those  are  casts  of  many 
of  the  inhabitants,  obtained  by  pouring  liquid  plaster  into  the  ash 
moulds  that  remained  of  them.  We  see  them  to-day  in  the  attitude 
and  with  the  expression  of  agony  and  horror  with  which  death  met 
them  more  than  eighteen  centuries  ago. 


23S  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

In  succeeding  eruptions  much  lava  was  poured  out;  and  in 
A.  D.  472,  ashes  were  cast  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  so  that  much 
fear  was  caused  at  Constantinople.  The  buried  cities  were  more 
and  more  covered  up,  and  it  was  not  until  about  a.  d.  1700  that,  as 
above  stated,  the  city  of  Herculaneum  was  discovered,  the  peasants 
of  the  vicinity  being  in  the  habit  of  extracting  marble  from  its 
ruins.  They  had  also,  in  the  course  of  years,  found  many  statues. 
In  consequence,  an  excavation  was  ordered  by  Charles  III,  the 
earliest  result  being  the  discovery  of  the  theatre,  with  the  statues 
above  named.  The  work  of  excavation,  however,  has  not  pro- 
crressed  far  in  this  city,  on  account  of  its  extreme  difficulty,  though 
various  excellent  specimens  of  art-work  have  been  discovered,  in- 
cludino-  the  finest  examples  of  mural  painting  extant  from  antiq- 
uity. The  library  was  also  discovered,  1803  papyri  being  found. 
Thoucrh  these  had  been  charred  to  cinder,  and  were  very  difficult 
to  unroll  and  decipher,  over  300  of  them  have  been  read. 

pliny's  celebrated  description 

Pliny  the  Younger,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  only  con- 
temporary account  of  the  great  eruption  under  consideration,  was 
at  the  time  of  its  occurrence  resident  with  his  mother  at  Misenum, 
where  the  Roman  fleet  lay,  under  the  command  of  his  uncle,  the 
great  author  of  the  "  Historia  Naturalis".  His  account,  contained 
in  two  letters  to  Tacitus  (lib.  vi.  16,  20),  is  not  so  much  a  narrative 
of  the  eruption,  as  a  record  of  his  uncle's  singular  death,  yet  it  is 
of  great  interest  as  yielding  the  impressions  of  an  observer.  The 
translation  which  follows  is  adopted  from  the  very  free  version  of 
Melmoth,  except  in  one  or  two  places,  where  it  differs  much  from 
the  ordinary  text.  The  letters  are  given  entire,  though  some  parts 
are  rather  specimens  of  style  than  good  examples  of  description. 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 


'■39 


"Your  request  that  I  should  send  an  account  of  my  uncle's 
death,  in  order  to  transmit  a  more  exact  relation  of  it  to  posterity, 
deserves  my  acknowledgments;  for  if  this  accident  shall  be  cele- 
brated by  your  pen,  the  glory  of  it,  I  am  assured,  will  be  rendered 
forever  illustrious.  And,  notwithstanding  he  perished  by  a  misfor- 
tune which,  as  it  involved  at  the  same  time  a  most  beautiful  country 
in  ruins,  and  destroyed  so  many  populous  cities,  seems  to  promise 


MOUNT  VESUVIUS  BEFORE  ERUPTION  OF  A.  D.  Tg. 

him  an  everlastino-  remembrance;  notwithstandinof  he  has  himself 
composed  many  and  lasting  works  ;  yet  I  am  persuaded  the  men- 
tion of  him  in  your  immortal  works  will  greatly  contribute  to  eter- 
nize his  name.  Happy  I  esteem  those  to  be,  whom  Providence 
has  distinguished  with  the  abilities  either  of  doing  such  actions  as 
are  worthy  of  being  related,  or  of  relating  them  in  a  manner  wor- 
thy of  being  read ;  but  doubly  happy  are  they  who  are  blessed  with 


240  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

both  these  talents;  in  the  number  of  which  my  uncle,  as  his  own 
writings  and  your  history  will  prove,  may  justly  be  ranked.  It  is 
with  extreme  willingness,  therefore,  that  I  execute  your  commands; 
and  should,  indeed,  have  claimed  the  task  if  you  had  not  enjoined  it. 

"He  was  at  that  time  with  the  fleet  under  his  command  at 
Misenum.  On  the  24th  of  August,  about  one  in  the  afternoon,  my 
mother  desired  him  to  observe  a  cloud  which  appeared  of  a  very 
unusual  size  and  shape.  He  had  just  returned  from  taking  the 
benefit  of  the  sun,  and,  after  bathing  himself  in  cold  water,  and  tak- 
ing a  slight  repast,  had  retired  to  his  study.  He  immediately 
arose,  and  went  out  upon  an  eminence,  from  whence  he  might  more 
distinctly  view  this  very  uncommon  appearance.  It  was  not  at 
that  distance  discernible  from  what  mountain  the  cloud  issued,  but 
it  was  found  afterward  to  ascend  from  Mount  Vesuvius.  I  cannot 
give  a  more  exact  description  of  its  figure  than  by  comparing  it  to 
that  of  a  pine  tree,  for  it  shot  up  to  a  great  height  in  the  form  of  a 
trunk,  which  extended  itself  at  the  top  into  a  sort  of  branches;  occa- 
sioned, I  imagine,  either  by  a  sudden  gust  of  air  that  impelled  it,  the 
force  of  which  decreased  as  it  advanced  upwards,  or  the  cloud  itself 
being  pressed  back  again  by  its  own  weight,  and  expanding  in  this 
manner:  it  appeared  sometimes  bright,  and  sometimes  dark  and 
spotted,  as  it  was  more  or  less  impregnated  with  earth  and  cinders. 

"This  extraordinary  phenomenon  excited  my  uncle's  philoso- 
phical curiosity  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  it.  He  ordered  a  light 
vessel  to  be  got  ready,  and  gave  me  the  liberty,  if  I  thought  proper, 
to  attend  him.  I  rather  chose  to  continue  my  studies,  for,  as  it 
happened,  he  had  given  me  an  employment  of  that  kind.  As  he 
was  passing  out  of  the  house  he  received  dispatches  :  the  marines 
at  Retina,  terrified  at  the  imminent  peril  (for  the  place  lay  beneath 
the  mountain,  and  there  was  no  retreat  but  by  ships),  entreated  his 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  241 

aid  in  this  extremity.  He  accordingly  changed  his  first  design,  and 
what  he  began  with  a  philosophical  he  pursued  with  an  heroical 
turn  of  mind, 

THE    VOYAGE    TO    STABI^ 

"  He  ordered  the  galleys  to  put  to  sea,  and  went  himself  on 
board  with  an  intention  of  assisting  not  only  Retina  but  many 
other  places,  for  the  population  is  thick  on  that  beautiful  coast. 
When  hastening  to  the  place  from  whence  others  fled  with  the  ut- 
most terror,  he  steered  a  direct  course  to  the  point  of  danger, 
and  with  so  much  calmness  and  presence  of  mind,  as  to  be  able  to 
make  and  dictate  his  observations  upon  the  motion  and  figure  of 
that  dreadful  scene.  He  was  now  so  nigh  the  mountain  that  the 
cinders,  which  grew  thicker  and  hotter  the  nearer  he  approached, 
fell  into  the  ships,  together  with  pumice-stones,  and  black  pieces  of 
burning  rock  ;  they  were  in  danger  of  not  only  being  left  aground 
by  the  sudden  retreat  of  the  sea,  but  also  from  the  vast  fragments 
which  rolled  down  from  the  mountain,  and  obstructed  all  the  shore. 

"  Here  he  stopped  to  consider  whether  he  should  return  back 
again  ;  to  which  the  pilot  advised  him.  'Fortune,'  said  he,  'favors 
the  brave  ;  carry  me  to  Pomponianus.'  Pomponianus  was  then  at 
Stabiae,  separated  by  a  gulf,  which  the  sea,  after  several  insensible 
windings,  forms  upon  the  shore.  He  (Pomponianus)  had  already 
sent  his  baggage  on  board  ;  for  though  he  was  not  at  that  time  in 
actual  danger,  yet  being  within  view  of  it,  and  indeed  extremely 
near,  if  it  should  in  the  least  increase,  he  was  determined  to  put  to 
sea  as  soon  as  the  wind  should  change.  It  was  favorable,  however, 
for  carrying  my  uncle  to  Pomponianus,  whom  he  found  in  the 
greatest  consternation.  He  embraced  him  with  tenderness,  en- 
couraging and  exhorting  him  to  keep  up  his  spirits  ;  and  the  more 
to  dissipate  his  fears  he  ordered,  with  an  air  of  unconcern,  the 
16 


i^±  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

baths  to  be  got  ready;  when,  after  having  bathed,  he  sat  down  to 
supper  with  great  cheerfulness,  or  at  least  (what  is  equally  heroic) 
with  all  the  appearance  of  it. 

"  In  the  meantime,  the  eruption  from  Mount  Vesuvius  flamed 
out  in  several  places  with  much  violence,  which  the  darkness  of  the 
night  contributed  to  render  still  more  visible  and  dreadful.  But 
my  uncle,  in  order  to  soothe  the  apprehensions  of  his  friend, 
assured  him  it  was  only  the  burning  of  the  villages,  which  the 
country  people  had  abandoned  to  the  flames  ;  after  this  he  retired  to 
rest,  and  it  was  most  certain  he  was  so  little  discomposed  as  to  fall 
into  a  deep  sleep  ;  for,  being  pretty  fat,  and  breathing  hard,  those 
who  attended  without  actually  heard  him  snore.  The  court  which 
led  to  his  apartment  being  now  almost  filled  with  stones  and  ashes, 
if  he  had  continued  there  any  longer  it  would  have  been  impossible 
for  him  to  have  made  his  way  out ;  it  was  thought  proper,  therefore, 
to  awaken  him.  He  got  up  and  went  to  Pomponianus  and  the  rest 
of  his  company,  who  were  not  unconcered  enough  to  think  of 
going  to  bed.  They  consulted  together  whether  it  would  be  most 
prudent  to  trust  to  the  houses,  which  now  shook  from  side  to  side 
with  frequent  and  violent  concussions  ;  or  to  fly  to  the  open  fields, 
where  the  calcined  stone  and  cinders,  though  light  indeed,  yet  fell 
in  large  showers  and  threatened  destruction.  In  this  distress  they 
resolved  for  the  fields  as  the  less  dangerous  situation  of  the  two — 
a  resolution  which,  while  the  rest  of  the  company  were  hurried  into 
it  by  their  fears,  my  uncle  embraced  upon  cool  and  deliberate  con- 
sideration. 

DEATH    OF    PLINY    THE    ELDER 

"They  went  out,  then,  having  pillows  tied  upon  their  heads 
with  napkins  ;  and  this  was  their  whole  defence  against  the  storm 
of  stones  that  fell  around  them.      It  was  now  day  everywhere  else, 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  24.^ 

but  there  a  deeper  darkness  prevailed  than  in  the  most  obscure 
night ;  which,  however,  was  in  some  degree  dissipated  by  torches 
and  other  Hghts  of  various  kinds.  They  thought  proper  to  0-0 
down  further  upon  the  shore,  to  observe  if  they  might  safely  put 
out  to  sea  ;  but  they  found  that  the  waves  still  ran  extremely  high 
and  boisterous.  There  my  uncle,  having  drunk  a  draught  or  two  of 
cold  water,  threw  himself  down  upon  a  cloth  which  was  spread  for 
him,  when  immediately  the  flames,  and  a  strong  smell  of  sulphur 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  them,  dispersed  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany, and  obliged  him  to  rise.  He  raised  himself  up  with  the 
assistance  of  two  of  his  servants,  and  instantly  fell  down  dead,  suf- 
focated, as  I  conjecture,  by  some  gross  and  noxious  vapor,  having 
always  had  weak  lungs,  and  being  frequently  subject  to  a  difficulty 
of  breathing. 

"  As  soon  as  it  was  light  again,  which  was  not  till  the  third  day 
after  this  melancholy  accident,  his  body  was  found  entire,  and  with- 
out any  marks  of  violence  upon  it,  exactly  in  the  same  posture  as  that 
in  which  he  fell,  and  looking  more  like  a  man  asleep  than  dead. 
During  all  this  time  my  mother  and  I  were  at  Misenum.  But  this 
has  no  connection  with  your  history,  as  your  inquiry  went  no  farther 
than  concerning  my  uncle's  death  ;  with  that,  therefore,  I  will  put  an 
end  to  my  letter.  Suffer  me  only  to  add,  that  I  have  faithfully  related 
to  you  what  I  was  either  an  eye-witness  of  myself,  or  received  imme- 
diately after  the  accident  happened,  and  before  there  was  any  time 
to  vary  the  truth.  You  will  choose  out  of  this  narrative  such  cir- 
cumstances as  shall  be  most  suitable  to  your  purpose  ;  for  there  is  a 
great  difference  between  what  is  proper  for  a  letter  and  a  history; 
between  writing  to  a  friend  and  writing  to  the  public.  Farewell." 
In  this  account,  which  was  drawn  up  some  years  after  the  event, 
from  the  recollections  of  a  student  eighteen  years  old,  we  recognize 


244  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

the  continual  earthquakes ;  the  agitated  sea  with  its  upHfted 
bed ;  the  flames  and  vapors  of  an  ordinary  eruption,  probably 
attended  by  lava  as  well  as  ashes.  But  it  seems  likely  that  the 
author's  memory,  or  rather  the  information  communicated  to  him 
regarding  the  closing  scene  of  Pliny's  life,  was  defective.  Flames 
and  sulphurous  vapors  could  hardly  be  actually  present  at  Stabise, 
ten  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  eruption. 

That  lava  flowed  at  all  from  Vesuvius  on  this  occasion  has 
been  usually  denied  ;  chiefly  because  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum 
the  causes  of  destruction  were  different — -ashes  overwhelmed  the 
former,  mud  concreted  over  the  latter.  We  observe,  indeed,  phe- 
nomena on  the  shore  near  Torre  del  Greco  which  seem  to  require 
the  belief  that  currents  of  lava  had  been  solidified  there  at  some 
period  before  the  construction  of  certain  walls  and  floors,  and  other 
works  of  Roman  date.  In  the  Oxford  Museum,  among  the  speci- 
mens of  lava  to  which  the  dates  are  assigned,  is  one  referred  to 
A.  D.  79,  but  there  is  no  mode  of  proving  it  to  have  belonged  to 
the  eruption  of  that  date. 

pliny's  second  letter 

A  second  letter  from  Pliny  to  Tacitus  (^Epist.  20)  was  required 
to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  that  historian  ;  especially  as  regards  the 
events  which  happened  under  the  eyes  of  his  friend.  Here  it  is 
according  to  Melmoth : 

"  The  letter  which,  in  compliance  with  your  request,  I  wrote 
to  you  concerning  the  death  of  my  uncle,  has  raised,  it  seems,  your 
curiosity  to  know  what  terrors  and  danger  attended  me  while  I 
continued  at  Misenum :  for  there,  I  think,  the  account  in  my  former 
letter  broke  off. 

'  Though  my  shocked  soul  recoils,  my  tongue  shall  tell.' 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  245 

"  My  uncle  having  left  us,  I  pursued  the  studies  which  pre- 
vented my  going  with  him  till  it  was  time  to  bathe.  After  which  I 
went  to  supper,  and  from  thence  to  bed,  where  my  sleep  was  greatly 
broken  and  disturbed.  There  had  been,  for  many  days  before, 
some  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  which  the  less  surprised  us  as  they 
are  extremely  frequent  in  Campania  ;  but  they  were  so  particularly 
violent  that  night,  that  they  not  only  shook  everything  about  us, 
but  seemed,  indeed,  to  threaten  total  destruction.  My  mother  flew 
to  my  chamber,  where  she  found  me  rising  in  order  to  awaken  her. 
We  went  out  into  a  small  court  belonging  to  the  house,  which  sepa- 
rated the  sea  from  the  buildings.  As  I  was  at  that  time  but  eigh- 
teen years  of  age,  I  know  not  whether  I  should  call  my  behavior, 
in  this  dangerous  juncture,  courage  or  rashness  ;  but  I  took  up 
Livy,  and  amused  myself  with  turning  over  that  author,  and  even 
making  extracts  from  him,  as  if  all  about  me  had  been  in  full 
security.  While  we  were  in  this  posture,  a  friend  of  my  uncle's,  who 
was  just  come  from  Spain  to  pay  him  a  visit,  joined  us  ;  and  observ- 
ing me  sitting  with  my  mother  with  a  book  in  my  hand,  greatly 
condemned  her  calmness  at  the  same  time  that  he  reproved  me  for 
my  careless  security.      Nevertheless,  I  still  went  on  with  my  author. 

"  Though  it  was  now  morning,  the  light  was  exceedingly  faint 
and  languid  ;  the  buildings  all  around  us  tottered  ;  and,  though  we 
stood  upon  open  ground,  yet  as  the  place  was  narrow  and  confined, 
there  was  no  remaininor  there  without  certain  and  ereat  danger  : 
we  therefore  resolved  to  quit  the  town.  The  people  followed  us 
in  the  utmost  consternation,  and,  as  to  a  mind  distracted  with  terror 
every  suggestion  seems  more  prudent  than  its  own,  pressed  in  great 
crowds  about  us  in  our  way  out. 

"  Being  got  to  a  convenient  distance  from  the  houses,  we  stood 
still,  in  the  midst  of  a  most  dangerous  and  dreadful  scene.     The 


246  THE  FAMOUS   VESUVIUS 

chariots  which  we  had  ordered  to  be  drawn  out  were  so  agitated 
backwards  and  forwards,  though  upon  the  most  level  ground,  that 
we  could  not  keep  them  steady,  even  by  supporting  them  with 
large  stones.  The  sea  seemed  to  roll  back  upon  itself,  and  to  be 
driven  from  its  banks  by  the  convulsive  motion  of  the  earth  ;  it  is 
certain  at  least  that  the  shore  was  considerably  enlarged,  and  many 
sea  animals  were  left  upon  it.  On  the  other  side  a  black  and 
dreadful  cloud,  bursting  with  an  igneous  serpentine  vapor,  darted 
out  a  long  train  of  fire,  resembling  flashes  of  lightning,  but  much 
larger. 

FEAR    VERSUS    COMPOSURE 

"  Upon  this  the  Spanish  friend  whom  I  have  mentioned, 
addressed  himself  to  my  mother  and  me  with  great  warmth  and 
earnestness  ;  '  If  your  brother  and  your  uncle,'  said  he,  '  is  safe,  he 
certainly  wishes  you  to  be  so  too  ;  but  if  he  has  perished,  it  was  his 
desire,  no  doubt,  that  you  might  both  survive  him  :  why  therefore 
do  you  delay  your  escape  a  moment  ?'  We  could  never  think  of 
our  own  safety,  we  said,  while  we  were  uncertain  of  his.  Hereupon 
our  friend  left  us,  and  withdrew  with  the  utmost  precipitation. 
Soon  afterward,  the  cloud  seemed  to  descend,  and  cover  the  whole 
ocean  ;  as  it  certainly  did  the  island  of  Caprea^,  and  the  promontory 
of  Misenum.  My  mother  strongly  conjured  me  to  make  my  escape 
at  any  rate,  which,  as  I  was  young,  I  might  easily  do  ;  as  for  her- 
self, she  said,  her  age  and  corpulency  rendered  all  attempts  of  that 
sort  impossible.  However,  she  would  willingly  meet  death,  if  she 
could  have  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  that  she  was  not  the  occasion 
of  mine.  But  I  absolutely  refused  to  leave  her,  and  taking  her  by 
the  hand,  I  led  her  on  ;  she  complied  with  great  reluctance,  and 
not  without  many  reproaches  to  herself  for  retarding  my  flight. 

"The  ashes  now  began  to  fall  upon  us,  though  in  no  great 


THE  FAMOUS   VESUVIUS  247 

quantity.  I  turned  my  head  and  observed  behind  us  a  thick  smoke, 
which  came  rolHng  after  us  like  a  torrent.  I  proposed,  while  we 
yet  had  any  light,  to  turn  out  of  the  high  road  lest  she  should  be 
pressed  to  death  in  the  dark  by  the  crowd  that  followed  us.  We 
had  scarce  stepped  out  of  the  path  when  darkness  overspread  us, 
not  like  that  of  a  cloudy  night,  or  when  there  is  no  moon,  but  of  a 
room  when  it  is  all  shut  up  and  all  the  lights  are  extinct.  Nothing 
then  was  to  be  heard  but  the  shrieks  of  women,  the  screams  of 
children  and  the  cries  of  men  ;  some  calling  for  their  children, 
others  for  their  parents,  others  for  their  husbands,  and  only  distin- 
guishing each  other  by  their  voices  ;  one  lamenting  his  own  fate, 
another  that  of  his  family  ;  some  wishing  to  die  from  the  very  fear 
of  dying;  some  lifting  their  hands  to  the  gods  ;  but  the  greater  part 
ima^inino^  that  the  last  and  eternal  nio^ht  was  come,  which  was  to 
destroy  the  gods  and  the  world  together.  Among  them  were  some 
who  augmented  the  real  terrors  by  imaginary  ones,  and  made  the 
frighted  multitude  believe  that  Misenum  was  actually  in  flames. 

"  At  length  a  glimmering  light  appeared,  which  we  imagined 
to  be  rather  the  forerunner  of  an  approaching  burst  of  flames,  as 
in  truth  it  was,  than  the  return  of  day.  However,  the  fire  fell  at  a 
distance  from  us  ;  then  again  we  were  immersed  in  thick  darkness, 
and  a  heavy  shower  of  ashes  rained  upon  us,  which  we  were  obliged 
every  now  and  then  to  shake  off,  otherwise  we  should  have  been 
crushed  and  buried  in  the  heap. 

"  I  might  boast  that,  during  all  this  scene  of  horror,  not  a 
sigh  or  expression  of  fear  escaped  me,  had  not  my  support  been 
founded  in  that  miserable,  though  strong,  consolation  that  all  man- 
kind were  involved  in  the  same  calamity,  and  that  I  imagined  I  was 
perishing  with  the  world  itself !  At  last  this  dreadful  darkness  was 
dissipated  by  degrees,  like  a  cloud  of  smoke  ;  the  real  day  returned, 


248  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

and  soon  the  sun  appeared,  though  very  faintly,  and  as  when  an 
ecHpse  is  coming  on.  Every  object  that  presented  itself  to  our 
eyes  (which  were  extremely  weakened)  seemed  changed,  being  cov- 
ered over  with  white  ashes,  as  with  a  deep  snow.  We  returned  to 
Misenum,  where  we  refreshed  ourselves  as  well  as  we  could,  and 
passed  an  anxious  night  between  hope  and  fear,  for  the  earthquake 
still  continued,  while  several  greatly  excited  people  ran  up  and  down, 
heightening  their  own  and  their  friends'  calamities  by  terrible  pre- 
dictions. However,  my  mother  and  I,  notwithstanding  the  danger 
we  had  passed  and  that  which  still  threatened  us,  had  no  thoughts 
of  leaving  the  place  till  we  should  receive  some  account  from  my 
uncle. 

"  And  now  you  will  read  this  narrative  without  any  view  of 
inserting  it  in  your  history,  of  which  it  is  by  no  means  worthy; 
and,  indeed,  you  must  impute  it  to  your  own  request  if  it  shall  not 
even  deserve  the  trouble  of  a  letter.      Farewell!" 

DION    CASSIUS    ON    THE    ERUPTION 

The  story  told  by  Pliny  is  the  only  one  upon  which  we  can 
rely.  Dion  Cassius,  the  historian,  who  wrote  more  than  a  century 
later,  does  not  hesitate  to  use  his  imagination,  telling  us  that  Pom- 
peii was  buried  under  showers  of  ashes  "  while  all  the  people  were 
sitting  in  the  theatre."  This  statement  has  been  effectively  made 
use  of  by  Bulwer,  in  his  "  Last  Days  of  Pompeii."  In  this  he  pic- 
tures for  us  a  gladiatorial  combat  in  the  arena,  with  thousands  of 
deeply  interested  spectators  occupying  the  surrounding  seats.  The 
novelist  works  his  story  up  to  a  thrilling  climax  in  which  the  volcano 
plays  a  leading  part. 

This  is  all  very  well  as  a  vivid  piece  of  fiction,  but  it  does  not 
accord  with  fact,  since  Dion  Cassius  was  undoubtedly  incorrect  in 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  249 

hfs  statement.  We  now  know  from  the  evidence  furnished  by  the 
excavations  that  none  of  the  people  were  destroyed  in  the  theatres, 
and,  indeed,  that  there  were  very  few  who  did  not  escape  from  both 
cities.  It  is  very  likely  that  many  of  them  returned  and  dug  down 
for  the  most  valued  treasures  in  their  buried  habitations.  Dion 
Cassius  may  have  obtained  the  material  for  his  accounts  from  the 
traditions  of  the  descendants  of  survivors,  and  if  so  he  shows 
how  terrible  must  have  been  the  unpression  made  upon  their 
minds.  He  assures  us  that  during  the  eruption  a  multitude  of  men 
of  superhuman  nature  appeared,  sometimes  on  the  mountain  and 
sometimes  in  the  environs,  that  stones  and  smoke  were  thrown  out, 
the  sun  was  hidden,  and  then  the  giants  seemed  to  rise  again,  while 
the  sounds  of  trumpets  were  heard. 

LAKE  AVERNUS 

Not  far  from  Vesuvius  lay  the  famous  Lake  Avernus,  whose 
name  was  long  a  popular  synonym  for  the  infernal  regions.  The 
lake  is  harmless  to-day,  but  its  reputation  indicates  that  it  was  not 
always  so.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  hides  the  out- 
let of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  that  long  after  the  volcano  ceased  to 
be  active  it  emitted  gases  as  fatal  to  animal  life  as  those  suffocat- 
ing vapors  which  annihilated  all  the  cattle  on  the  Island  of  Lance- 
rote,  in  the  Canaries,  in  the  year  1730.  Its  name  signifies  "bird- 
less,"  indicating  that  its  ascending  vapors  were  fatal  to  all  birds 
that  attempted  to  fly  above  its  surface. 

In  the  superstition  of  the  Middle  Ages  Vesuvius  assumed  the 
character  which  had  before  been  given  to  Avernus,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  mouth  of  hell.  Cardinal  Damiano,  in  a  letter  to 
Pope  Nicholas  II.,  written  about  the  year  1060,  tells  the  story  of 
how  a  priest,  who   had  left  his  mother  ill  at  Beneventum,  went  on 


J50 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 


his  homeward  way  to  Nfeples  past  the  crater  of  Vesuvius,  and  heard 
issuing  therefrom  the  voice  of  his  mother  in  great  agony.  He  after- 
ward found  that  her  death  coincided  exactly  with  the  time  at  which 
he  had  heard  her  voice. 

A  trip  to  the  summit  of  Vesuvius  is  one  of  the  principal  attrac- 
tions for  strangers  who  are  visiting  Naples.  There  is  a  fascina- 
tion about  that  awful   slayer  of  cities  which  few  can  resist,  and  no 


A  LATER  VIEW  OF  MOUNT  VESUVIUS 

less  attractive  is  the  city  of  Pompeii,  now  largely  laid  bare  after 
being  buried  for  eighteen  centuries.  We  are  indebted  to  Henry 
Haynie  for  the  following  interesting  description  :  "Once  seen,  it  will 
never  be  forgotten.  It  is  full  of  suggestions.  It  kindles  emotions 
that  are  worth  the  kindling,  and  brings  on  dreams  that  are  worth 
the  dreaming.  Of  the  three  places  overwhelmed,  Herculaneum, 
Pompeii   and   Stabiae,    the   last   scarcely  repays  excavation   in   one 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  251 

sense,  and  the  first  in  another  ;  but  to  watch  the  diggers  at  Pom- 
peii is  fascinating,  even  when  there  is  no  reasonable  expectation  of 
a  find.  Herculaneum  was  buried  with  lava,  or  rather  with  tufa,  and 
it  is  so  very  hard  that  the  expense  of  uncovering  of  only  a  small 
part  of  that  city  has  been  very  great. 

HOW    POMPEII    IMPRESSES    ITS    VISITORS 

"  Pompeii  was  smothered  in  ashes,  however,  and   most   of  it  is 
uncovered  now.      But  while  there   is  much   that  is  fascinating,  and 
all  of  it   is  instructive,  there   is  nothing  grand   or  awe-inspirino-  in 
the  ruins  of  Pompeii.      No  visitor  stands  breathless  as  in  the  great 
hall  of    Karnak   or   in    the   once   dreadful   Coliseum  at    Rome,  or 
dreams  with  sensuous  delight  as  before  the  Jasmine  Court  at  Agra. 
"  The  M^eirdness  of  the  scene  possesses  us  as  a  haunted  cham- 
ber might.      We  have  before  us  the  narrow  lanes,  paved  with  tufa, 
in  which   Roman  wagon  wheels  have  worn   deep    ruts.      We   cross 
streets   on   stepping-stones  which  sandaled  feet  ages  ago  polished. 
We   see   the  wine   shops   with   empty  jars,  counters   stained   with 
liquor,  stone  mills  where  the  wheat  was  ground,  and  the  very  ovens 
in  which  bread  was  baked  more  than  eighteen  centuries  ago.    '  Wel- 
come'  is  offered  us   at  one  silent,  broken  doorway;  at  another  we 
are  warned  to  '  Beware  of  the  dog  ! '     The  painted  figures, — some 
of  them  so  artistic  and  rich  in  colors  that  pictures  of  them  are  dis- 
believed,— the  mosaic  pavements,  the  empty  fountains,  the  altars 
and  household  gods,  the  marble  pillars  and  the  small  gardens  are 
there  just  as  the  owners  left  them.     Some  of  the  walls  are  scribbled 
over   by  the   small   boys  of    Pompeii   in   strange   characters   which 
mock  modern  erudition.      In  places  we  read  the  advertisements  of 
gladiatorial  shows,  never  to  come  off,  the  names  of  candidates  for 
legislative  office  who  were  never  to  sit.     There  is  nothing  like  this 
elsewhere. 


252  THE  FAMOUS   VESUVIUS 

"  The  value  of  Pompeii  to  those  classic  students  who  would 
understand,  not  the  speech  only,  but  the  life  and  the  every-day 
habits,  of  the  ancient  world,  is  too  high  for  reckoning.  Its  inesti- 
mable evidence  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  any  high-school  boy 
can  draw  the  plan  of  a  Roman  house,  while  ripest  scholars  hesitate 
on  the  very  threshhold  of  a  Greek  dwelling.  This  is  because  no 
Hellenic  Pompeii  has  yet  been  discovered,  but  thanks  to  the  silent 
city  close  to  the  beautiful  Bay  of  Naplt  s,  the  Latin  house  is  known 
from  ostium  to  porticus,  from  the  front  door  to  the  back  garden 
wall. 

STREETS    AND    HOUSES    OF    POMPEII 

'*  The  streets  of  Pompeii  m.ust  have  had  a  charm  unapproached 
by  those  of  any  city  now  in  existence.  The  stores,  indeed,  were 
wretched  little  dens.  Two  or  three  of  them  commonly  occupied 
the  front  of  a  house  on  either  side  of  the  entrance,  the  ostium  ; 
but  when  the  door  lay  open,  as  was  usually  the  case,  a  passerby 
could  look  into  the  atrium,  prettily  decorated  and  hung  with  rich 
stuffs.  The  sunshine  entered  through  an  aperture  in  the  roof,  and 
shone  on  the  waters  of  the  impluvium,  the  mosaic  floor,  the  altar  of 
the  household  gods  and  the  flowers  around  the  fountain. 

"  As  the  life  of  the  Pompeiians  was  all  outdoors,  their  pretty 
homes  stood  open  always.  There  was  indeed  a  curtain  betwixt 
the  atrium  and  the  peristyle,  but  it  was  drawn  only  when  the  mas- 
ter gave  a  banquet.  Thus  a  wayfarer  in  the  street  could  see,  be- 
yond the  hall  described  and  its  busy  servants,  the  white  columns  of- 
the  peristyle,  with  creepers  trained  about  them,  flowers  all  around, 
and  jets  of  water  playing  through  pipes  which  are  still  in  place.  In 
many  cases  the  garden  itself  could  be  observed  between  the  pillars 
of  the  further  gallery,  and  rich  paintings  on  the  wall  beyond  that. 


THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS  253 

"  But  how  far  removed  those  Httle  palaces  of  Pompeii  were 
from  our  notion  of  well-being  is  scarcely  to  be  understood  by  one 
who  has  not  seen  them.  It  is  a  question  strange  in  all  points  of 
view  where  the  family  slept  in  the  houses,  nearly  all  of  which  had 
no  second  story.  In  the  most  graceful  villas  the  three  to  five  sleep- 
ing chambers  round  the  atrium  and  four  round  the  peristyle  were 
rather  ornamental  cupboards  than  aught  else.  One  did  not  differ 
from  another,  and  if  these  were  devoted  to  the  household  the 
slaves,  male  and  female,  must  have  slept  on  the  floor  outside.  The 
master,  his  family  and  his  guest  used  these  small,  dark  rooms,  which 
were  apparently  without  such  common  luxuries  as  we  expect  in  the 
humblest  home.  All  their  furniture  could  hardly  have  been  more 
than  a  bed  and  a  footstool ;  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
public  bath  was  a  daily  amusement.  The  kitchen  of  each  villa  cer- 
tainly was  not  furnished  with  such  Ingenuity,  expense  or  thought 
as  the  stories  of  Roman  gormandising  would  have  led  us  to  expect. 
In  the  house  of  the  yEdile — so  called  from  the  fact  that  '  Pansam 
yEd.'  is  inscribed  in  red  characters  by  the  doorway — the  cook  seems 
to  have  been  employed  in  frying  eggs  at  the  moment  when  increas- 
ing danger  put  him  to  flight.  His  range,  four  partitions  of  brick, 
was  very  small ;  a  knife,  a  strainer,  a  pan  lay  by  the  fire  just  as 
they  fell  from  the  slave's  hand." 

VALUE    OF    THE    DISCOVERY    OF    POMPEII 

This  description  strongly  presents  to  us  the  principal  value  of 
the  discovery  of  Pompeii.  Interesting  as  are  the  numerous  works 
of  art  found  in  its  habitations,  and  important  as  is  their  bearing 
upon  some  branches  of  the  art  of  the  ancient  world,  this  cannot 
compare  in  interest  with  the  flood  of  light  which  is  here  thrown  on 
ancient  life  in  all  its  details,  enabling  us  to  picture  to  ourselves  the 


254  THE  FAMOUS  VESUVIUS 

manners  and  habits  of  life  of  a  cultivated  and  flourishing  popula- 
tion at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  to  an  extent  which  no 
amount  of  study  of  ancient  history  could  yield. 

Looking  upon  the  work  of  the  volcano  as  essentially  destruc- 
tive, as  we  naturally  do,  we  have  here  a  valuable  example  of  its 
power  as  a  preservative  agent ;  and  it  is  certainly  singular  that  it  is 
to  a  volcano  we  owe  much  of  what  we  know  concerning  the  cities, 
dwellings  and  domestic  life  of  the  people  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

It  would  be  very  fortunate  for  students  of  antiquity  if  similar 
disasters  had  happened  to  cities  in  other  ancient  civilized  lands, 
however  unfortunate  it  might  have  been  to  their  inhabitants.  But 
doubtless  we  are  better  off  without  knowledge  gained  from  ruins 
thus  produced. 


M' 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  Etna  and  Stromboli. 

OUNT  VESUVIUS  is  of  especial  interest  as  being  the  only 
active  volcano  on  the  continent  of  Europe — all  others  of 
that  region  being  on  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean — and 
for  the  famous  ancient  eruption  described  in  the  last  chapter. 
Before  this  it  had  borne  the  reputation  of  being  extinct,  but  since 
then  it  has  frequently  shown  that  its  fires  have  not  burned  out,  and 
has  on  several  occasions  given  a  vigorous  display  of  its  powers. 

During  the  fifteen  hundred  years  succeeding  the  destructive 
event  described  eruptions  were  of  occasional  occurrence,  though  of 
no  great  magnitude.  But  throughout  the  long  intervals  when 
Vesuvius  was  at  rest  it  was  noted  that  Etna  and  Ischia  were  more 
or  less  disturbed. 

THE    BIRTH    OF    MONTE    NUOVO 

In  1538  a  startling  evidence  was  given  that  there  was  no  de- 
cline of  energy  in  the  volcanic  system  of  Southern  Italy.  This  was 
the  sudden  birth  of  the  mountain  still  known  as  Monte  Nuovo,  or 
New  Mountain,  which  was  thrown  up  in  the  Campania  near  Aver- 
nus,  on  the  spot  formerly  occupied  by  the  Lucrine  Lake. 

For  about  two  years  prior  to  this  event  the  district  had  been 
disturbed  by  earthquakes,  which  on  September  27  and  28,  1538, 
became  almost  continuous.  The  low  shore  was  slightly  elevated, 
so  that  the  sea  retreated,  leaving  bare  a  strip  about  two  hundred 
feet   in  width.     The   surface  cracked,  steam  escaped,  and  at  last, 

255 


256  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

early  on  the  morning  of  the  29th,  a  greater  rent  was  made,  from 
which  were  vomited  furiously  "smoke,  fire,  stones  and  mud  com- 
posed of  ashes,  making  at  the  time  of  its  opening  a  noise  like  the 
loudest  thunder." 

The  ejected  material  in  less  than  twelve  hours  built  the  hill 
which  has  lasted  substantially  in  the  same  form  to  our  day.  It  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  that  since  the  formation  of  Monte  Nuovo  there 
has  been  no  volcanic  disturbance  in  any  part  of  the  Neapolitan 
district  except  in  Vesuvius,  which  for  five  centuries  previous  had 
remained  largely  at  rest. 

LAVA     FROM    VESUVIUS 

The  first  recognised  appearance  of  lava  in  the  eruptions  of 
Vesuvius  was  in  the  violent  eruption  of  1036.  This  was  succeeded 
at  intervals  by  five  other  outbreaks,  none  of  them  of  great  energy. 
After  1500  the  crater  became  completely  quiet,  the  whole  mountain 
in  time  being  grown  over  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  while  by  the 
next  century  the  interior  of  the  crater  became  green  with  shrub- 
bery, indicating  that  no  injurious  gases  were  escaping. 

This  was  sleep,  not  death.  In  1631  the  awakening  came  in  an 
eruption  of  terrible  violence.  Almost  in  a  moment  the  green 
mantle  of  woodland  and'  shrubbery  was  torn  away  and  death  and 
destruction  left  where  peace  and  safety  had  seemed  assured. 

Seven  streams  of  lava  poured  from  the  crater  and  swept  rap- 
idly down  the  mountain  side,  leaving  ruin  along  their  paths.  Re- 
sina,  Granasello  and  Torre  del  Greco,  three  villages  that  had  grown 
up  during  the  period  of  quiescence,  were  more  or  less  overwhelmed 
by  the  molten  lava.  Great  torrents  of  hot  water  also  poured  out, 
adding  to  the  work  of  desolation.  It  was  estimated  that  eighteen 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were  killed. 


(Copyrighted  by  Judge  Publishing  Co.,  igca.) 
PHOTOGRAPHIC  PICTURE  OF  BLACKENED  CORPSES  PROTRUDING  FROM   DUST  COVERED 
RUINS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  STREET  OF  ST.  PIERRE. 


(Copyrighted  by  Judge  Publishing  Co  ,  1902.') 
A  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PICTURE  SHOWING  WHERE  SEVENTEEN  DEAD  BODIES  W^ERE  STREWN 
IN  THE  ROADWAY  IN  ST.  PIERRE  NEAREST  THE  VOLCANO. 


(Copyrighted  by  Judge  Publishing  Co  ,  1902.) 

A  PHOTOGRAPHIC  VIEW  OF  THE  RUINS  IN   '  USINESS  SECTION  OF  ST.  PIERRE,  MUCH  LIKE 

THE  RUINS  FOUND  AT  POMPEII. 


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VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMDOLI  257 

What  made  the  horror  all  the  greater  was  a  frightful  error  of 
judgment,  similar  to  that  of  the  Governor  of  Martinique  at  St. 
Pierre.  The  Governor  of  Torre  del  Greco  had  refused  to  be 
warned  in  time,  and  prevented  the  people  from  making  their  escape 
until  it  was  too  late.  Not  until  the  lava  had  actually  reached  the 
walls  was  the  order  for  departure  given.  Before  the  order  could 
be  acted  upon  the  molten  streams  burst  through  the  walls  into 
the  crowded  streets  and  overwhelmed  the  vast  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

In  this  violent  paroxysm  the  whole  top  of  the  mountain  is  said 
to  have  been  swept  away,  the  new  crater  which  took  the  place  of 
the  old  one  being  greatly  lowered.  From  that  date  Vesuvius  has 
never  been  at  rest  for  any  long  interval,  and  eruptions  of  some 
degree  of  violence  have  been  rarely  more  than  a  few  years  apart. 
Of  its  various  later  manifestations  of  energy  we  select  for  description 
that  of  1767,  of  which  an  interesting  account  by  a  careful  observer 
is  extant. 

GREAT    ERUPTION    OF     I  767 

From  the  loth  of  December,  1766,  to  March,  1767,  Vesuvius 
was  quiet ;  then  it  began  to  throw  up  stones  from  time  to  time. 
In  April  the  throws  were  more  frequent,  and  at  night  the  red  glare 
grew  stronger  on  the  cloudy  columns  which  hung  over  the  crater. 
These  repeated  throws  of  cinders,  ashes  and  pumice-stones  so  much 
increased  the  small  cone  of  eruption  which  had  been  left  in  the 
centre  of  the  flat  crateral  space  that  its  top  became  visible  at  a  dis- 
tance. 

On  the  7th  of  August  there  issued  a  small  stream  of  lava  from 
a  breach  in  the  side  of  a  small  cone  ;  the  lava  gradually  filled  the 
space  between  the  cone  and  the  crateral  edge  ;  on  the  12th  of  Sep- 
tember   it    overflowed    the   crater,  and  ran    down    the    mountain. 
17 


258  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

Stones  were  ejected  which  took  ten  seconds  in  their  fall,  from  which 
it  may  be  computed  that  the  height  which  the  stones  reached  was 
1, 600  feet.  Padre  Torre,  a  great  observer  of  Vesuvius,  says  they 
went  up  above  a  thousand  feet.  The  lava  ceased  on  the  iSth  of 
October,  but  at  8  a.  m.  on  the  19th  it  rushed  out  at  a  different 
place,  after  volleys  of  stones  had  been  thrown  to  an  immense 
height,  and  the  huge  traditional  pine-tree  of  smoke  reappeared. 
On  this  occasion  that  vast  phantom  extended  its  menacing  shadow 
over  Capri,  at  a  distance  of  twenty-eight  miles  from  Vesuvius. 

The  lava  at  first  came  out  of  a  mouth  about  one  hundred  yards 
below  the  crater,  on  the  side  toward  Monte  Somma.  While  occu- 
pied in  viewing  this  current,  the  observer  heard  a  violent  noise 
within  the  mountain  ;  saw  it  split  open  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile,  and  saw  from  the  new  mouth  a  mountain  of  liquid  fire  shoot 
up  many  feet,  and  then,  like  a  torrent,  roll  on  toward  him.  The  earth 
shook  ;  stones  fell  thick  around  him  ;  dense  clouds  of  ashes  dark- 
ened the  air  ;  loud  thunders  came  from  the  mountain  top,  and  he 
took  to  precipitate  flight.  The  Padre's  account  is  too  lively  and 
instructive  for  his  own  words  to  be  omitted. 

PADRE  Torre's  narrative 

"  I  was  making  my  observations  upon  the  lava,  which  had 
already,  from  the  spot  where  it  first  broke  out,  reached  the  valley, 
when,  on  a  sudden,  about  noon,  I  heard  a  violent  noise  within  the 
mountain,  and  at  a  spot  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  off  the  place 
where  I  stood  the  mountain  split ;  and  with  much  noise,  from  this 
new  mouth,  a  fountain  of  liquid  fire  shot  up  many  feet  high,  and 
then  like  a  torrent  rolled  on  directly  towards  us.  The  earth  shook 
at  the  same  time  that  a  volley  of  stones  fell  thick  upon  us  ;  in  an 
instant   clouds  of  black  smoke    and  ashes   caused  almost   a  total 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI  259 

darkness  ;  the  explosions  from  the  top  of  the  mountain  were  much 
louder  than  any  thunder  I  ever  heard,  and  the  smell  of  the  sulphur 
was  very  offensive.  My  guide,  alarmed,  took  to  his  heels  ;  and  I 
must  confess  that  I  was  not  at  my  ease.  I  followed  close,  and  we 
ran  near  three  miles  without  stopping  ;  as  the  earth  continued  to 
shake  under  our  feet,  I  was  apprehensive  of  the  opening  of  a  fresh 
mouth  which  might  have  cut  off  our  retreat. 

"  I  also  feared  that  the  violent  explosions  would  detach  some 
of  the  rocks  off  the  mountain  of  Somma,  under  which  we  were 
obliged  to  pass  ;  besides,  the  pumice-stones,  falling  upon  us  like 
hail,  were  of  such  a  size  as  to  cause  a  disagreeable  sensation  in  the 
part  upon  which  they  fell.  After  having  taken  breath,  as  the  earth 
trembled  greatly  I  thought  it  most  prudent  to  leave  the  mountain 
and  return  to  my  villa,  where  I  found  my  family  in  great  alarm  at 
the  continual  and  violent  explosions  of  the  volcano,  which  shook 
our  house  to  its  very  foundation,  the  doors  and  windows  swinging 
upon  their  hinges. 

"About  tv/o  of  the  clock  in  the  afternoon  (19th)  another  lava 
stream  forced  its  way  out  of  the  same  place  from  whence  came  the 
lava  of  last  year,  so  that  the  conflagration  was  soon  as  great  on  this 
side  of  the  mountain  as  on  the  other  which  I  had  just  left.  I 
observed  on  my  way  to  Naples,  which  was  in  less  than  two  hours 
after  I  had  left  the  mountain,  that  the  lava  had  actually  covered 
three  miles  of  the  very  road  through  which  we  had  retreated. 
This  river  of  lava  in  the  Atrio  del  Cavallo  was  sixty  or  seventy 
feet  deep,  and  in  some  places  nearly  two  miles  broad.  Besides  the 
explosions,  which  were  frequent,  there  was  a  continued  subter- 
ranean and  violent  rumbling  noise,  which  lasted  five  hours  in  the 
night, — supposed  to  arise  from  contact  of  the  lava  with  rain-water 
lodged  in  cavities  within.     The  whole  neighborhood  was  shaken 


26o  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM  BO  LI 

violently  ;  Portici  and  Naples  were  in  the  extremity  of  alarm  ;  the 
churches  were  filled  ;  the  streets  were  thronged  with  processions  of 
saints,  and  various  ceremonies  were  performed  to  quell  the  fury 
of  the  mountain. 

"  In  the  night  of  the  20th,  the  occasion  being  critical,  the  pris- 
oners in  the  public  jail  attempted  to  escape,  and  the  mob  set  fire 
to  the  gates  of  the  residence  of  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  because 
he  refused  to  bring  out  the  relics  of  St.  Januarius.  The  21st  was 
a  quieter  day,  but  the  whole  violence  of  the  eruption  returned  on 
the  22d,  at  10  a.  m.,  with  the  same  thundering  noise,  but  more  vio- 
lent and  alarming.  Ashes  fell  in  abundance  in  the  streets  of  Naples, 
covering  the  housetops  and  balconies  an  inch  deep.  Ships  at  sea, 
twenty  leagues  from  Naples,  were  covered  with  them. 

"In  the  midst  of  these  horrors,  the  mob,  growing  tumultuous 
and  impatient,  obliged  the  Cardinal  to  bring  out  the  head  of  St. 
Januarius,  at  the  extremity  of  Naples,  toward  Vesuvius;  and  it  is 
well  attested  here  that  the  eruption  ceased  the  moment  the  saint 
came  in  sicrht  of  the  mountain.  It  is  true  the  noise  ceased  about 
that  time  after  having  lasted  five  hours,  as  it  had  done  the  preced- 
ing days. 

"  On  the  23d  the  lava  still  ran,  but  on  the  24th  it  ceased  ;  but 
smoke  continued.  On  the  25th  there  rose  a  vast  column  of  black 
smoke,  giving  out  much  forked  lightning  with  thunder,  in  a  sky 
quite  clear  except  for  the  smoke  of  the  volcano.  On  the  26th 
smoke  continued,  but  on  the  27th  the  eruption  came  to  an  end." 

This  eruption  was  also  described  by  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
who  continued  to  keep  a  close  watch  on  the  movements  of  the  vol- 
cano for  many  years.  The  next  outbreak  of  especial  violence  took 
place  in  1779,  when  what  seemed  to  the  eye  a  column  of  fire 
ascended  two  miles  high,  while  cinder  fragments  fell  far  and  wide, 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  ST  ROM  BO  LI    ■  .  261 

destroying  the  hopes  of  harvest  throughout  a  wide  district.  They 
fell  in  abundance  thirty  miles  distant,  and  the  dust  of  the  explo- 
sion was  carried  a  hundred  miles  away. 

In  1793  the  crater  became  active  again,  and  in  1794,  after  a 
period  of  short  tranquillity  or  comparative  inaction,  the  mountain 
again  became  agitated,  and  one  of  the  most  formidable  eruptions 
known  in  the  history  of  Vesuvius  began.  It  was  in  some  respects 
unlike  many  others,  being  somewhat  peculiar  as  to  the  place  of  its 
outburst,  the  temperature  of  the  lava,  and  the  course  of  the  current. 
Breislak,  an  Italian  geologist,  observed  the  characteristic  phenomena 
with  the  eye  of  science,  and  his  account  supplies  many  interesting 
facts. 

BREISLAK    ON    THE    ERUPTION     OF    I  794 

Breislak  remarked  certain  changes  in  the  character  of  the  earth- 
niotions  during  this  six  hours'  eruption,  which  led  him  to  some  par- 
ticular conjecture  of  the  cause.  At  the  beginning  the  trembling 
was  continual,  and  accompanied  by  a  hollow  noise,  similar  to  that 
occasioned  by  a  river  falling  into  a  subterranean  cavern.  The  lava, 
at  the  time  of  its  being  disgorged,  from  the  impetuous  and  uninter- 
rupted manner  in  which  it  was  ejected,  causing  it  to  strike  violently 
against  the  walls  of  the  vent,  occasioned  a  continual  oscillation  of 
the  mountain.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  night  this  vibratory 
motion  ceased,  and  was  succeeded  by  distant  shocks.  The  fluid 
mass,  diminished  in  quantity,  now  pressed  less  violently  against  the 
walls  of  the  aperture,  and  no  longer  issued  in  a  continual  and 
gushing  stream,  but  only  at  intervals,  when  the  interior  fermenta- 
tion elevated  the  boiling  matter  above  the  mouth.  About  4  a.  m. 
the  shocks  began  to  be  less  numerous,  and  the  intervals  between 
them  rendered  their  force  and  duration  more  perceptible. 


262  -      VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

During  this  tremendous  eruption  at  the  base  of  the  Vesuvian 
cone,  and  the  fearful  earthquakes  which  accompanied  it,  the  summit 
was  tranquil.  The  sky  was  serene,  the  stars  were  brilliant,  and  only 
over  Vesuvius  hung  a  thick,  dark  smoke-cloud,  lighted  up  into  an 
auroral  arch  by  the  glare  of  a  stream  of  fire  more  than  two  miles 
long,  and  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad.  The  sea  was  calm, 
and  reflected  the  red  glare ;  while  from  the  source  of  the  lava  came 
continual  jets  of  uprushing  incandescent  stones.  Nearer  to 
view,  Torre  del  Greco  in  flames,  and  clouds  of  black  smoke,  with 
falling  houses,  presented  a  dark  and  tragical  foreground,  heightened 
by  the  subterranean  thunder  of  the  mountain,  and  the  groans  and 
lamentations  of  fifteen  thousand  ruined  men,  women  and  children. 

The  heavy  clouds  of  ashes  which  were  thrown  out  on  this 
occasion  gathered  in  the  early  morning  into  a  mighty  shadow  over 
Naples  and  the  neighborhood  ;  the  sun  rose  pale  and  obscure,  and 
a  long,  dim  twilight  reigned  afterward. 

Such  were  the  phenomena  on  the  western  side  of  Vesuvius. 
They  were  matched  by  others  on  the  eastern  aspect,  not  visible  at 
Naples,  except  by  reflection  of  their  light  in  the  atmosphere.  The 
lava  on  this  side  flowed  eastward,  along  a  route  often  traversed  by 
lava,  by  the  broken  crest  of  the  Cognojo  and  the  valley  of 
Sorienta.  The  extreme  length  to  which  this  current  reached  was 
not  less  than  an  Italian  mile.  The  cubic  content  was  estimated  to 
be  half  that  already  assigned  to  the  western  currents.  Taken 
together  they  amounted  to  20,744,445  cubic  metres,  or  2,804,440 
cubic  fathoms  ;  the  constitution  of  the  lava  being  the  same  in  each, 
both  springing  from  one  deep-seated  reservoir  of  fluid  rock. 

The  eruption  of  lava  ceased  on  the  i6th,  and  then  followed 
heavy  discharges  of  ashes,  violent  shocks  of  earthquakes,  thunder 
and  lightning  in  the  columns  of  vapors  and  ashes,  and  finally  heavy 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI  263 

rains,  lasting  till  the   3d   of  July.      The  barometer  during  all   the 
eruption  was  steady. 

Breislak  made  an  approximate  calculation  of  the  quantity  of 
ashes  which  fell  on  Vesuvius  during  this  great  eruption,  and  states 
the  result  as  equal  to  what  would  cover  a  circular  area  6  kilometres 
(about  3^  English  miles)  in  radius,  and  39  centimetres  (about  15 
inches)  in  depth. 

STRANGE    EFFECTS 

Among  the  notable  things  which  attended  this  eruption,  it  is 
recorded  that  in  Torre  del  Greco  metallic  and  other  substances 
exposed  to  the  current  were  variously  affected.  Silver  was  melted, 
glass  became  porcelain.  Iron  swelled  to  four  times  its  volume  and 
lost  its  texture.  Brass  was  decomposed,  and  its  constituent  copper 
crystallized  in  cubic  and  octahedral  forms  aggregated  in  beautiful 
branches.  Zinc  was  sometimes  turned  to  blende.  During  the 
eruption,  the  lip  of  the  crater  toward  Bosco  Tre  Case  on  the  south- 
east, fell  in,  or  was  thrown  off,  and  the  height  of  that  part  was 
reduced  426  feet. 

On  the  17th,  the  sea  was  found  in  a  boiling  state  100  yards  off 
the  new  promontory  made  by  the  lava  of  Torre  del  Greco,  and  no 
boat  could  remain  near  it  on  account  of  the  melting  of  the  pitch  in 
her  bottom.  For  nearly  a  month  after  the  eruption  vast  quantities 
of  fine  white  ashes,  mixed  with  volumes  of  steam,  were  thrown  out 
from  the  crater ;  the  clouds  thus  generated  were  condensed  into 
heavy  rain,  and  large  tracts  of  the  Vesuvian  slopes  were  deluged 
with  volcanic  mud.  It  filled  ravines,  such  as  Fosso  Grande,  and 
concreted  and  hardened  there  into  pumiceous  tufa — a  very  instruc- 
tive phenomenon. 

Immense  injury  was  done  to  the  rich  territory  of  Somma,  Otta- 
jano  and  Bosco  by  heavy  rains,  which  swept  along  cinders,  broke 


264  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

up  the  road  and  bridges,  and  overturned  trees  and  houses  for  the 
space  of  fifteen  days. 

There  were  few,  years  during  the  nineteenth  century  in  which 
Vesuvius  did  not  show  symptoms  of  its  internal  fires,  and  at  inter- 
vals it  manifested  much  activity,  though  not  equaling  the  terrible 
eruptions  of  its  past  history.  The  severest  eruptions  in  that  cen- 
tury were  those  of  187 1  and  1876.  In  the  first  a  sudden  emission 
of  lava  killed  twenty  spectators  at  the  mouth  of  the  crater,  and  only 
spent  its  fury  after  San  Sebastian  and  Massa  had  been  well  nigh 
annihilated.  Fragments  of  rock  were  thrown  up  to  the  height  of 
4,000  feet,  and  the  explosions  were  so  violent  that  the  whole 
countryside  fled  panic  stricken  to  Naples.  The  activity  of  the  vol- 
cano, accompanied  by  distinct  shocks  of  earthquake,  lasted  for  a 
week. 

In  1876,  for  three  weeks  together,  lava  streamed  down  the  side 
of  Vesuvius,  sweeping  away  the  village  of  Cercolo  and  running 
nearly  to  the  sea  at  Ponte  Maddaloni.  There  were  then  formed 
ten  small  craters  within  the  greater  one.  But  these  were  united 
by  a  later  eruption  in  1888,  and  pressure  from  beneath  formed  a 
vast  cone  where  they  had  been. 

HARDIHOOD    OF    THE    PEOPLE 

It  may  seem  strange  that  so  dangerous  a  neighborhood  should 
be  inhabited.  But  so  it  is.  Though  Pompeii,  Herculaneum  and 
Stabiae  lie  buried  beneath  the  mud  and  ashes  belched  out  of  the 
mouth  of  Vesuvius,  the  villages  of  Portici  and  Revina,  Torre  del 
Greco  and  Torre  del  Annunziata  have  taken  their  place,  and  a  large 
population,  'cheerful  and  prosperous,  flourishes  around  the  dis- 
turbed mountain  and  over  the  district  of  which  it  is  the  somewhat 
untrustworthy  safety-valve. 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI  265 

It  is  thus  that  man,  in  his  eagerness  to  cultivate  all  available 
parts  of  the  earth,  dares  the  most  frightful  perils  and  ventures  into 
the  most  threatening  situations,  seeking  to  snatch  the  means  of 
life  from  the  very  jaws  of  death.  The  danger  is  soon  forgotten, 
the  need  of  cultivation  of  the  ground  is  ever  pressing,  and  no 
threats  of  peril  seem  capable  of  restraining  the  activity  of  man  for 
many  years.  Though  the  proposition  of  abandoning  the  Island  of 
Martinique  has  been  seriously  considered,  the  chances  are  that,  before 
many  years  have  passed,  a  cheerful  and  busy  population  will  be  at 
work  again  on  the  flanks  of  Mont  Pelee. 

MOUNT    ETNA 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Island  of  Sicily,  and  not  far  from 
the  sea,  rises  in  solitary  grandeur  Mount  Etna,  the  largest  and 
highest  of  European  volcanoes.  Its  height  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  a  little  over  10,870  feet,  considerably  above  the  limit  of  per- 
petual snow.  It  accordingly  presents  the  striking  phenomenon  of 
volcanic  vapors  ascending  from  a  snow-clad  summit.  The  base  of 
the  mountain  is  eighty-seven  miles  in  circumference,  and  nearly 
circular;  but  there  is  a  wide  additional  extent  all  around  over- 
spread by  its  lava.  The  lower  portions  of  the  mountain  are 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  richly  adorned  with  corn-fields,  vineyards, 
olive-groves  and  orchards.  Above  this  region  are  extensive  forests, 
chiefly  of  oak,  chesnut,  and  pine,  with  here  and  there  clumps  of  , 
cork-trees  and  beech.  In  this  forest  region  are  grassy  glades,  which 
afford  rich  pasture  to  numerous  flocks.  Above  the  forest  lies  a 
volcanic  desert,  covered  with  black  lava  and  slag.  Out  of  this 
region,  which  is  comparatively  flat,  rises  the  principal  cone,  about 
1,100  feet  in  height,  having  on  its  summit  the  crater,  whence  sul- 
phurous vapors  are  continually  evolved. 


266  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

The  great  height  of  Etna  has  exerted  a  remarkable  influence 
on  its  general  conformation  :  for  the  volcanic  forces  have  rarely 
been  of  sufficient  energy  to  throw  the  lava  quite  up  to  the  crater 
at  the  summit.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  numerous  subsi- 
diary craters  and  cones  have  been  formed  all  around  the  flanks  of 
the  mountain,  so  that  it  has  become  rather  a  cluster  of  volcanoes 
than  a  single  volcanic  cone. 

The  eruptions  of  this  mountain  have  been  numerous,  records 
of  them  extending  back  to  several  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  while  unrecorded  ones  doubtless  took  place  much  further  back. 
After  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  more  especially  after 
the  breaking  forth  of  Vesuvius  in  79  a.  d.,  Etna  enjoyed  longer 
intervals  of  repose.  Its  eruptions  since  that  time  have  neverthe- 
less been  numerous — more  especially  during  the  intervals  when 
Vesuvius  was  inactive — there  being  a  sort  of  alternation  between 
the  periods  of  great  activity  of  the  two  mountains ;  although 
there  are  not  a  few  instances  of  their  having  been  both  in  action 
at  the  same  time. 

SIMILARITY    IN    ETNa's    ERUPTIONS 

There  is  a  great  similarity  in  the  character  of  the  eruptions  of 
Etna.  Earthquakes  presage  the  outburst,  loud  explosions  follow, 
rifts  and  bocche  delfuoco  open  in  the  sides  of  the  mountain  ;  smoke, 
.  sand,  ashes  and  scoriae  are  discharged,  the  action  localizes  itself  in 
one  or  more  craters,  cinders  are  thrown  up  and  accumulate  around 
the  crater  and  cone,  ultimately  lava  rises  and  frequently  breaks 
down  one  side  of  the  cone  where  the  resistance  is  least ;  then  the 
eruption  is  at  an  end. 

Smyth  says:  "The  symptoms  which  precede  an  eruption  are 
generally  irregular  clouds  of  s\xiok.Q,/erilli  or  volcanic  lightnings, 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM BOLI 


267 


hollow  intonations  and  local  earthquakes  that  often  alarm  the  sur- 
rounding country  as  far  as  Messina,  and  have  given  the  whole  pro- 
vince the  name  of  Val  Demone,  as  being  the  abode  of  infernal 
spirits.  These  agitations  increase  until  the  vast  cauldron  becomes 
surcharged  with  the  fused  minerals,  when,  if  the  convulsion  is  not 
sufficiently  powerful  to  force  them  from  the  great  crater  (which, 
from   its  great   altitude  and   the   weight   of    the   candent   matter, 


MOUNT  ETNA 


requires  an  uncommon  effort),  they  explode  through  that  part  of 
the  side  which  offers  the  least  resistance  with  a  grand  and  terrific 
effect,  throwing  red-hot  stones  and  flakes  of  fire  to  an  incredible 
height,  and  spreading  ignited  cinders  and  ashes  in  every  direction." 
After  the  eruption  of  ashes,  lava  frequently  follows,  sometimes 
rising  to  the  top  of  the  cone  of  cinders,  at  others  disrupting  it  on 
the   least  resisting  side.     When  the  lava  has  reached  the  base  of 


268  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

the  cone  it  begins  to  flow  down  the  mountain,  and,  being  then  in  a 
very  fluid  state,  it  moves  with  great  velocity.  As  it  cools,  the  sides 
and  surface  begin  to  harden,  its  velocity  decreases,  and  after 
several  days  it  moves  only  a  few  yards  an  hour.  The  internal 
portions,  however,  part  slowly  with  their  heat,  and  months  after 
the  eruption  clouds  of  steam  arise  from  the  black  and  exter- 
nally cold  lava-beds  after  rain  ;  which,  having  penetrated  through 
the  cracks,  has  found  its  way  to  the  heated  mass  within. 

THE    ERUPTION    OF    1 669 

The  most  memorable  of  the  eruptions  of  Etna  was  that  which 
elevated  the  double  cone  of  Monte  Rossi  and  destroyed  a  large 
part  of  the  city  of  Catania.  It  happened  in  the  year  1669,  3.nd 
was  preceded  by  an  earthquake,  which  overthrew  the  town  of  Nico- 
losi,  situated  ten  miles  inland  from  Catania,  and  about  twenty  miles 
from  the  top  of  Etna.  The  eruption  began  with  the  sudden  open- 
ing of  an  enormous  fissure,  extending  from  a  little  way  above 
Nicolosi  to  within  about  a  mile  of  the  top  of  the  principal  cone, 
its  length  being  twelve  miles,  its  average  breadth  six  feet,  its  depth 
unknown. 

We  have  a  more  detailed  account  of  this  eruption  than  of  any 
preceding  one,  as  it  was  observed  by  men  of  science  from  various 
countries.  The  account  from  which  we  select  is  that  of  Alfonso 
Borelli,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Catania. 

From  the  fissure  above  mentioned,  he  says,  there  came  a 
bright  light.  Six  mouths  opened  in  a  line  with  it  and  emitted  vast 
columns  of  smoke,  accompanied  by  loud  bellowings  which  could  be 
heard  forty  miles  off.  Towards  the  close  of  the  day  a  crater 
opened  about  a  mile  below  the  others,  which  ejected  red-hot  stones 
to  a  considerable  distance,   and   afterward  sand  and  ashes  which 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI  269 

covered  the  country  for  a  distance  of  sixty  miles.  The  new  crater 
soon  vomited  forth  a  torrent  of  lava  which  presented  a  front  of  two 
miles  ;  it  encircled  Monpilieri,  and  afterward  flowed  towards  Bel- 
passo,  a  town  of  8,000  inhabitants,  which  was  speedily  destroyed. 
Seven  mouths  of  fire  opened  around  the  new  crater,  and  in  three 
days  united  with  it,  forming  one  large  crater  800  feet  in  diameter. 
All  this  time  the  torrent  of  lava  continued  to  descend,  it  destroying 
the  town  of  Mascalucia  on  the  23d  of  March.  On  the  same  day 
the  crater  cast  up  great  quantities  of  sand,  ashes  and  scoriae,  and 
formed  above  itself  the  great  double-coned  hill  now  called  Monte 
Rossi,  from  the  red  color  of  the  ashes  of  which  it  is  mainly  com- 
posed. 

VILLAGES    AND    CITIES    BURIED 

On  the  25th  very  violent  earthquakes  occurred,  and  the  cone 
above  the  orreat  central  crater  was  shaken  down  into  the  crater  for 
the  fifth  time  since  the  first  century  A.  D.  The  original  current  of 
lava  divided  into  three  streams,  one  of  which  destroyed  San  Pietro, 
the  second  Camporotondo,  and  the  third  the  lands  about  Masca- 
lucia and  afterward  the  village  of  Misterbianco.  Fourteen  villages 
were  altogether  destroyed,  and  the  lava  flowed  toward  Catania. 
At  Albanelli,  two  miles  from  the  city,  it  undermined  a  hill  covered 
with  cornfields  and  carried  it  forward  a  considerable  distance.  A 
vineyard  was  also  seen  to  be  floating  on  its  fiery  surface.  When 
the  lava  reached  the  walls  of  Catania,  it  accumulated  without  pro- 
gression until  it  rose  to  the  top  o;  the  wall,  60  feet  in  height,  and 
it  then  fell  over  in  a  fiery  cascade  and  overwhelmed  a  part  of  the 
city.  Another  portion  of  the  same  stream  threw  down  1 20  feet  of 
the  wall  and  flowed  into  the  city. 

On  the  23d  of  April  the  lava  reached  the  sea,  which  it  entered 
as  a  stream  600  yards  broad  and  40  feet  deep.     The  stream  had 


270  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM BOLI 

moved  at  the  rate  of  thirteen  miles  in  twenty  days,  but  as  it  cooled 
it  moved  less  quickly,  and  during  the  last  twenty-three  days  of  its 
course,  it  advanced  only  two  miles.  On  reaching  the  sea  the  water,  of 
course,  began  to  boil  violently,  and  clouds  of  steam  arose,  carrying 
with  them  particles  of  scoriae.  Towards  the  end  of  April  the 
stream  on  the  west  side  of  Catania,  which  had  appeared  to  be  con- 
solidated, again  burst  forth,  and  flowed  into  the  garden  of  the 
Benedictine  Monastery  of  San  Niccola,  and  then  branched  off  into 
the  city.  Attempts  were  made  to  build  walls  to  arrest  its  progress. 
An  attempt  of  another  kind  was  made  by  a  gentleman  of 
Catania,  named  Pappalardo,  who  took  fift)'  men  with  him,  having 
previously  provided  them  with  skins  for  protection  from  the  intense 
heat  and  with  crowbars  to  effect  an  opening  in  the  lava.  They 
pierced  the  solid  outer  crust  of  solidified  lava,  and  a  rivulet  of  the 
molten  interior  immediately  gushed  out  and  flowed  in  the  direction 
of  Paterno,  whereupon  500  men  of  that  town,  alarmed  for  its 
safety,  took  up  arms  and  caused  Pappalardo  and  his  men  to  desist. 
The  lava  did  not  altogether  stop  for  four  months,  and  two  years 
after  it  had  ceased  to  flow  it  was  found  to  be  red  hot  beneath  the 
surface.  Even  eight  years  after  the  eruption  quantities  of  steam 
escaped  from  the  lava  after  a  shower  of  rain. 

THE    STONES    EJECTED 

The  stones  which  were  ejected  from  the  crater  during  this 
eruption  were  often  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  Borelli  calcu- 
lated that  the  diameter  of  one  which  he  saw  was  50  feet  ;  It  was 
thrown  to  a  distance  of  a  mile,  and  as  it  fell  it  penetrated  the 
earth  to  a  depth  of  23  feet.  The  volume  of  lava  emitted  during 
the  eruption  amounted  to  many  millions  of  cubic  feet.  Ferara 
considers  that  the  lencrth  of  the  stream  was  at  least  fifteen  miles, 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM BOLI  271 

while  its  average  width  was  between  two  and  three  miles,  so  that  it 
covered  at  least  forty  square  miles  of  surface. 

Among  the  towns  overflowed  by  this  great  eruption  was  Mom- 
pilieri.  Thirty-five  years  afterward,  in  1704,  an  excavation  was 
made  on  the  site  of  the  principal  church  of  this  place,  and  at  the 
depth  of  thirty-five  feet  the  workmen  came  upon  the  gate,  which 
was  adorned  with  three  statues.  From  under  an  arch  which  had 
been  formed  by  the  lava,  one  of  these  statues,  with  a  bell  and  some 
coins,  were  extracted  in  good  preservation.  This  fact  is  remark- 
able;  for  in  a  subsequent  eruption,  which  happened  in  1766,  a  hill 
about  fifty  feet  in  height,  being  surrounded  on  either  side  by  two 
streams  of  lava,  was  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  swept  along  by  the 
current.  The  latter  event  may  be  explained  by  supposing  that  the 
hill  in  question  was  •^cavernous  in  its  structure,  and  that  the  lava, 
penetrating  into  the  cavities,  forced  asunder  their  walls,  and  so 
detached  the  superincumbent  mass  from  its  supports. 

It  is  not  by  its  streams  of  fire  alone  that  Etna  ravages  the  val- 
leys and  plains  at  its  base.  It  sometimes  also  deluges  them  with 
great  floods  of  water.  On  the  2d  of  March,  1755,  two  streams  of 
lava,  issuing  from  the  highest  crater,  were  at  once  precipitated  on 
an  enormous  mass  of  very  deep  snow,  which  then  clothed  the  sum- 
mit. These  fiery  currents  ran  through  the  snow  to  a  distance  of 
three  miles,  melting  it  as  they  flowed.  The  consequence  was,  that  a 
tremendous  torrent  of  water  rushed  down  the  sides  of  the  mountain, 
carrying  with  it  vast  quantities  of  sand,  volcanic  cinders  and  blocks 
of  lava,  with  which  it  overspread  the  flanks  of  the  mountain  and 
the  plains  beneath,  which  it  devastated  in  its  course. 

The  volume  of  water  was  estimated  at  16,000,000  cubic  feet, 
it  forming  a  channel  two  miles  broad  and  in  some  places  thirty-four 
feet  deep,  and  flowing  at  the  rate  of  two-thirds  of  a  mile  in  a  minute. 


272  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM BOLI 

All  the  winter's  snow  on  the  mountain  could  not  have  yielded  such  a 
flood,  and  Lyell  considered  that  it  melted  older  layers  of  ice  which 
had  been  preserved  under  a  covering  of  volcanic  dust. 

ETNA  IN   1 819 

Another  great  eruption  took  place  in  18 19,  which  presented 
some  peculiarities.  Near  the  point  whence  the  highest  stream  of 
lava  issued  in  181 1,  there  were  opened  three  large  mouths,  which, 
with  loud  explosions,  threw  up  hot  cinders  and  sand,  illuminated 
by  a  strong  glare  from  beneath.  Shortly  afterwards  there  was 
opened,  a  little  lower  down,  another  mouth,  from  which  a  similar 
eruption  took  place ;  and  still  farther  down  there  soon  appeared 
a  fifth,  whence  there  flowed  a  torrent  of  lava  which  rapidly  spread 
itself  over  the  Val  del  Bove.  During  the  first  forty-eight  hours  it 
flowed  nearly  four  miles,  when  it  received  a  great  accession.  The 
three  original  mouths  became  united  into  one  large  crater,  from 
which,  as  well  as  from  the  other  two  mouths  below,  there  poured 
forth  a  vastly  augmented  torrent  of  lava,  which  rushed  with  great 
impetuosity  down  the  same  valley. 

During  its  progress  over  this  gentle  slope,  it  acquired  the  usual 
crust  of  hardened  slag.  It  directed  its  course  towards  that  point  at 
which  Val  del  Bove  opens  into  the  narrow  ravine  beneath  it — there 
being  between  the  two  a  deep  and  almost  perpendicular  precipice. 
Arrived  at  this  point,  the  lava-torrent  leaped  over  the  precipice  in 
a  vast  cascade,  and  with  a  thundering  noise,  arising  chiefly  from 
the  crashing  and  breaking  up  of  the  solid  crust,  which  was  in  a  great 
measure  pounded  to  atoms  by  the  fall  ;  it  throwing  up  such  vast 
clouds  of  dust  as  to  awaken  an  alarm  that  a  fresh  eruption  had 
begun  at  this  place,  which  is  witliin  the  wooded  region. 


VESUVIUS.  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI  273 

A  very  violent  eruption,  which  lasted  more  than  nine  months, 
commenced  on  the  21st  of  August,  1852.  It  was  first  witnessed  by 
a  party  of  English  tourists,  who  were  ascending  the  mountain  from 
Nicolosi  in  order  to  see  the  sunrise  from  the  summit.  As  they 
approached  the  Casa  Inglesi  the  crater  commenced  to  give  forth 
ashes  and  flames  of  fire.  In  a  narrow  defile  they  were  met  by  a 
violent  hurricane,  which  overthrew  both  the  mules  and  their  riders, 
and  urged  them  toward  the  precipices  of  the  Val  del  Bove.  They 
sheltered  themselves  beneath  some  masses  of  lava,  when  suddenly 
an  earthquake  shook  the  mountain,  and  their  mules  in  terror  fled 
away.  As  day  approached  they  returned  on  foot  to  Nicolosi,  for- 
tunately without  having  sustained  injury.  In  the  course  of  the 
night  many  boccJic  del  fiLOco  (small  lava  vents)  opened  in  that  part 
of  the  Val  del  Bove  called  the  Bazo  di  Trifoorlietto,  a  ereat  fissure 
opened  at  the  base  of  the  Giannicola  Grande,  and  a  crater  was 
thrown  up  from  which  for  seventeen  days  showers  of  sand  and 
scoriae  were  ejected. 

EFFECT    OF    THE    ERUPTION 

During  the  next  day  a  quantity  of  lava  flowed  down  the  Val 
del  Bove,  branching  off  so  that  one  stream  advanced  to  the  foot  of 
Monte  Finocchio,  and  the  other  to  Monte  Calanna.  Afterwards  it 
flowed  towards  Zaffarana,  and  devastated  a  large  tract  of  wooded 
region.  Four  days  later  a  second  crater  was  formed  near  the  first, 
from  which  lava  was  emitted,  together  with  sand  and  scoriae,  which 
caused  cones  to  arise  around  the  craters.  The  lava  moved  but 
slowly,  and  towards  the  end  of  August  it  came  to  a  stand,  only  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  Zaffarana. 

On  the  second  of  September,  Gemellaro  ascended  Monte 
Finocchio  in  the  Val  del  Bove  in  order  to  witness  the  outburst. 
He  states  that  the  hill  was  violently  agitated,  like  a  ship  at  sea. 
18 


274  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

The  surface  of  the  Val  del  Bove  appeared  like  a  molten  lake ; 
scoriae  were  thrown  up  from  the  craters  to  a  great  height,  and  loud 
explosions  were  heard  at  frequent  intervals.  The  eruption  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  violence.  On  October  6  two  new  mouths 
opened  in  the  Val  del  Bove,  emitting  lava  which  flowed  towards 
the  valley  of  Calanna,  and  fell  over  the  Salto  della  Giumenta,  a 
precipice  nearly  200  feet  deep.  The  noise  which  it  produced  was 
like  that  of  a  clash  of  metallic  masses.  The  eruption  continued 
with  abated  violence  during  the  early  months  of  1853,  and  it  did 
not  finally  cease  till  May  27.  The  entire  mass  of  lava  ejected  is 
estimated  to  have  been  equal  to  an  area  six  miles  long  by  two  miles 
broad,  with  an  average  depth  of  about  twelve  feet. 

This  eruption  was  one  of  the  grandest  of  all  the  known  erup- 
tions of  Etna.  During  its  outflow  more  than  2,000,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  molten  lava  was  spread  out  over  a  space  of  three  square 
miles.  There  have  been  several  eruptions  since  its  date,  but  none 
of  marked  prominence,  though  the  mountain  is  rarely  quiescent  for 
any  lengthened  period. 

THE    LI  PARI    VOLCANOES 

South-eastward  of  Ischia,  between  Calabria  and  Sicily,  the 
Lipari  Islands  arrest  attention  for  the  volcanic  phenomena  they 
present.  On  one  of  these  is  Mount  Vulcano,  or  Volcano,  from 
which  all  this  class  of  mountains  is  named.  At  present  the  best 
known  of  the  Lipari  volcanoes  is  Stromboli,  which  consists  of  a 
single  mountain,  having  a  very  obtuse  conical  form.  It  has  on  one 
side  of  it  several  small  craters,  of  which  only  one  is  at  present  in 
a  state  of  activity. 

The  total  height  of  the  mountain  is  about  2000  feet,  and  the 
principal  crater  is  situated  at  about  two-thirds  of  the  height. 
Stromboli  is  one  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  in  the  world.      It  is 


VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROM  BO  LI  275 

mentioned  as  being  in  a  state  of  activity  by  several  writers  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  the  commencement  of  its  operations  extends 
into  the  past  beyond  the  hmits  of  tradition.  Since  history  began 
its  action  has  never  wholly  ceased,  although  it  may  have  varied 
in  intensity  from  time  to  time. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  violence  of  its  eruptive  force 
has  a  certain  dependence  on  the  weather — being  always  most 
intense  when  the  barometer  is  lowest.  From  the  position  of  the 
crater,  it  is  possible  to  ascend  the  mountain  and  look  down  upon 
it  from  above.  Even  when  viewed  in  this  manner,  it  presents 
a  very  striking  appearance.  While  there  is  an  uninterrupted  con- 
tinuance of  small  explosions,  there  is  a  frequent  succession  of  more 
violent  eruptions,  at  intervals  varying  in  length  from  seven  to  fif- 
teen minutes. 

HOFFMAN    AT    STROMBOLI 

Several  eminent  observers  have  approached  quite  close  to  the 
crater,  and  examined  it  narrowly.  One  of  these  was  M.  Hoffman, 
who  visited  it  in  1828. 

This  eminent  geologist,  while  having  his  legs  held  by  his  com- 
panions, stretched  his  head  over  the  precipice,  and,  looking  right 
down  into  the  mouth  of  one  of  tlie  vents  of  the  crater  immedi- 
ately under  him,  watched  the  play  of  liquid  lava  within  it.  Its 
surface  resembled  molten  silver,  and  was  constantly  risino-  and  fall- 
ing  at  regular  intervals.  A  bubble  of  white  vapor  rose  and 
escaped,  with  a  decrepitating  noise,  at  each  ascent  of  the  lava — 
tossing  up  red-hot  fragments  of  scoria,  which  continued  dancing  up 
and  down  with  a  sort  of  rhythmic  play  upon  the  surface.  At  inter- 
vals of  fifteen  minutes  or  so,  there  was  a  pause  in  these  movements. 
Then  followed  a  loud  report,  while  the  ground  trembled,  and  there 
rose  to  the  surface  of  the  lava  an  immense  bubble  of  vapor.    This, 


276  VESUVIUS,  ETNA  AND  STROMBOLI 

bursting  with  a  crackling  noise,  threw  out  to  the  height  of  about 
1 200  feet  large  quantities  of  red-hot  stones  and  scoriae,  which,  des- 
cribing parabolic  curves,  fell  in  a  fiery  shower  all  around,  After 
another  brief  repose,  the  more  moderate  action  was  resumed  as 
before. 

Lipari,  a  neighboring  volcano,  was  formerly  more  active  than 
Stromboli,  though  for  centuries  past  it  has  been  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete quiescence.  The  Island  of  Volcano  lies  south  of  Lipari,  Its 
crater  was  active  before  the  Christian  era,  and  still  emits  sulphurous 
and  other  vapors.  At  present  its  main  office  is  to  serve  as  a  sul- 
phur mine.  Thus  the  peak  which  gives  title  to  all  fire-breathing 
mountains  has  become  a  servant  to  man.    So  are  the  mighty  fallen  ! 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

Skaptar  Jokull  and  Hecla,  the  Great  Icelandic 

Volcanoes. 

THE  far-northern  island  of  Iceland,  on  the  verge  of  the  frozen 
Arctic  reahn,  is  one  of  the  most  volcanic  countries  in  the 
world,  whether  we  regard  the  number  of  volcanoes  concen- 
trated in  so  small  a  space,  or  the  extraordinary  violence  of  their 
eruptions.  Of  volcanic  mountains  there  are  no  less  than  twenty 
which  have  been  active  during  historical  times.  Skaptar  in  the 
north,  and  Hecla  in  the  south,  being  much  the  best  known.  In 
all,  twenty-three  eruptions  are  on  record. 

Iceland's  volcanoes  rival  Mount  ^tna  in  height  and  magnitude, 
their  action  has  been  more  continuous  and  intense,  and  the  range  of 
volcanic  products  is  far  greater  than  in  Sicily.  The  latter  island, 
indeed,  is  riot  one-tenth  of  volcanic  origin,  while  the  whole  of  Ice- 
land is  due  to  the  work  of  subterranean  forces.  It  is  entirely  made 
up  of  volcanic  rocks,  and  has  seemingly  been  built  up  during  the 
ages  from  the  depths  of  the  seas.  It  is  reported,  indeed,  that  a 
new  island,  the  work  of  volcanic  forces,  appeared  opposite  Mount 
Hecla  in  1563  ;  but  this  statement  is  open  to  doubt. 

VOLCANOES    IN    ICELAND 

The  eruptions  of  the  volcanoes  in  Iceland  have  been  amongst 
the  most  terrible  of  those  carefully  recorded.  The  cold  climate  of 
the  island  and  the  height  of  the  mountains  produce  vast  quantities 

of  snow  and  ice,  v/hich  cover  the  volcanoes  and  fill  up  the  cracks 

277 


278  GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES 

and  valleys  in  their  sides.  When,  therefore,  an  eruption  commences, 
the  intense  heat  of  the  boiling  lava,  and  of  the  steam  which  rushes 
forth  from  the  crater,  makes  the  whole  mountain  hot,  and  vast 
masses  of  ice,  great  fields  of  snow,  and  deluges  of  water  roll  down 
the  hill-sides  into  the  plains.  The  lava  pours  from  the  top  and 
from  cracks  in  the  side  of  the  mountain,  or  is  ejected  hundreds  of 
feet,  to  fall  amongst  the  ice  and  snow  ;  and  the  great  masses  of 
red-hot  stone  cast  forth,  accompanied  by  cinders  and  fine  ashes, 
splash  into  the  roaring  torrent,  which  tears  up  rocks  in  its  course 
and  devastates  the  surrounding  country  for  miles. 

DREADFUL    FLOODS 

An  eruption  of  Kotlugja,  in  i860,  was  accompanied  by  dread- 
ful floods.  It  began  with  a  number  of  earthquakes,  which  shook 
the  surrounding  country.  Then  a  dark  columnar  cloud  of  vapor 
was  seen  to  rise  by  day  from  the  mountain,  and  by  night  balls  of 
fire  (volcanic  bombs)  and  red-hot  cinders  to  the  height  of  24,000 
feet  (nearly  five  miles),  which  were  seen  at  a  distance  of  180  miles. 
Deluges  of  water  rushed  from  the  heights,  bearing  along  whole 
fields  of  ice  and  rocky  fragments  of  every  size,  some  vomited  from 
the  volcano,  but  in  great  part  torn  from  the  flanks  of  the  mountain 
itself  and  carried  to  the  sea,  there  to  add  considerably  to  the  coast- 
line after  devastating  the  intervening  country.  The  fountain  of 
volcanic  bombs  consisted  of  masses  of  lava,  containing  gases  which 
exploded  and  produced  a  loud  sound,  which  was  said  to  have  been 
heard  at  a  distance  of  100  miles.  The  size  of  the  bombs,  and  the 
height  to  which  they  must  have  reached,  were  very  great.  But  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  historical  eruptions  in  Iceland  were  those  of 
Skaptar  Jokull  in  1783,  and  of  Hecla  in  1845.  ^^  these  an  ex- 
tended description  is  worthy  of  being  given. 


GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES  279 

Of  these  two  memorable  eruptions,  that  of  Skaptar-Jokull 
began  on  the  i  ith  of  June,  1783.  It  was  preceded  by  a  long  series 
of  earthquakes,  which  had  become  exceedingly  violent  immediately 
before  the  eruption.  On  the  8th,  volcanic  vapors  were  emitted 
from  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  on  the  iith  immense  tor- 
rents of  lava  began  to  be  poured  forth  from  numerous  mouths. 
These  torrents  united  to  form  a  large  stream,  which,  flowing  down 
into  the  river  Skapta,  not  only  dried  it  up,  but  completely  filled  the 
vast  gorge  through  which  the  river  had  held  its  course.  This 
gorge,  200  feet  in  breadth,  and  from  400  to  600  feet  in  depth,  the 
lava  filled  so  entirely  as  to  overflow  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
fields  on  either  side.  On  issuing  from  this  ravine,  the  lava  flowed 
into  a  deep  lake  which  lay  in  the  course  of  the  river.  Here  it  was 
arrested  for  a  while  ;  but  it  ultimately  filled  the  bed  of  the  lake 
altogether — either  drying  up  its  waters,  or  chasing  them  before  it 
into  the  lower  part  of  the  river's  course.  Still  forced  onward  by  the 
accumulation  of  molten  lava  from  behind,  the  stream  resumed  its 
advance,  till  it  reached  some  ancient  volcanic  rocks  which  were  full 
•  of  caverns.  Into  these  it  entered,  and  where  it  could  not  eat  its  way 
by  melting  the  old  rock,  it  forced  a  passage  by  shivering  the  solid 
mass  and  throwing  its  broken  fragments  into  the  air  to  a  height  of 
1 50  feet. 

A    TORRENT    OF    LAVA 

On  the  1 8th  of  June  there  opened  above  the  first  mouth  a 
second  of  large '  dimensions,  whence  poured  another  immense 
torrent  of  lava,  which  flowed  with  great  rapidity  over  the  solidified 
surface  of  the  first  stream,  and  ultimately  combined  with  it  to  form 
a  more  formidable  main  current.  When  this  fresh  stream  reached 
the  fiery  lake,  which  had  filled  the  lower  portion  of  the  valley  of 
the  Skapta,  a  portion  of  it  was  forced  up  the  channel  of  that  river, 


28o  GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES 

towards  the  foot  of  the  hill  whence  it  takes  its  rise.  After  pursuing 
its  course  for  several  days,  the  main  body  of  this  stream  reached 
the  edge  of  a  great  waterfall  called  Stapafoss,  which  plunged  into 
a  deep  abyss.  Displacing  the  water,  the  lava  here  leaped  over  the 
precipice,  and  formed  a  great  cataract  of  fire.  After  this,  it  filled 
the  channel  of  the  river,  though  extending  itself  in  breadth  far 
beyond  it,  and  followed  it  until  it  reached  the  sea. 

ENORMOUS    QUANTITY    OF    LAVA 

The  3rd  of  August  brought  fresh  accessions  to  the  flood  of 
lava  still  pouring  from  the  mountain.  There  being  no  room  in  the 
channel,  now  filled  by  the  former  lurid  stream,  which  had  pursued  a 
northwesterly  course,  the  fresh  lava  was  forced  to  take  a  new  direc- 
tion towards  the  southeast,  where  it  entered  the  bed  of  another 
river  with  a  barbaric  name.  Here  it  pursued  a  course  similar  to 
that  which  flowed  through  the  channel  of  the  Skapta,  filling  up  the 
deep  gorges,  and  then  spreading  itself  out  into  great  fiery  lakes 
over  the  plains. 

The  eruptions  of  lava  from  the  mountain  continued,  with  ' 
some  short  intervals,  for  two  years,  and  so  enormous  was  the 
quantity  poured  forth  during  this  period  that,  according  to  a  care- 
ful estimate  which  has  been  made,  the  whole  together  would  form 
a  mass  equal  to  that  of  Mont  Blanc.  Of  the  two  streams,  the 
greater  was  fifty,  the  less  forty,  miles  in  length.  The  Skapta 
branch  attained  on  the  plains  a  breadth  varying  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  miles — that  of  the  other  was  only  about  half  as  much.  Each 
of  the  currents  had  an  average  depth  of  100  feet,  but  in  the  deep 
gorges  it  was  no  less  than  600  feet.  Even  as  late  as  1  794  vapors 
continued  to  rise  from  these  great  streams,  and  the  water  contained 
in  the  numerous  fissures  formed  in  their  crust  was  hot. 


GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES  281 

The  devastation  directly  wrought  by  the  lava  currents  them- 
selves was  not  the  whole  of  the  evils  they  brought  upon  unfortunate 
Iceland  and  its  inhabitants.  Partly  owing  to  the  sudden  melting 
of  the  snows  and  glaciers  of  the  mountain,  partly  owing  to  the 
stoppage  of  the  river  courses,  immense  floods  of  water  deluged  the 
country  in  the  neighborhood,  destroying  many  villages  and  a  large 
amount  of  agricultural  and  other  property.  Twenty  villages  were 
overwhelmed  by  the  lava  currents,  while  the  ashes  thrown  out 
during  the  eruption  covered  the  whole  Island  and  the  surface  of 
the  sea  for  miles  around  its  shores.  On  several  occasions  the  ashes 
were  drifted  by  the  winds  over  considerable  parts  of  the  European 
continent,  obscuring  the  sun  and  giving  the  sky  a  gray  and  gloomy 
aspect.  In  certain  respects  they  reproduced  the  phenomena  of  the 
explosion  of  Mount  Krakatoa,  which,  singularly,  occurred  just  a 
century  later,  in  1883.  The  strange  red  sunset  phenomena  of  the 
latter  were  reproduced  by  this  Icelandic  event  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Out  of  the  50,000  persons  who  then  inhabited  Iceland,  9,336 
perished,  together  with  11,460  head  of  cattle,  190,480  sheep  and 
28,000  horses.  This  dreadful  destruction  of  life  was  caused  partly 
by  the  direct  action  of  the  lava  currents,  partly  by  the  noxious 
vapors  they  emitted,  partly  by  the  floods  of  water,  partly  by 
the  destruction  of  the  herbage  by  the  falling  ashes,  and  lastly  In 
consequence  of  the  desertion  of  the  coasts  by  the  fish,  which  formed 
a  large  portion  of  the  food  of  the  people. 

ERUPTION    OF    MOUNT    HECLA 

After  this  frightful  eruption,  no  serious  volcanic  disturbance 
took  place  In  Iceland  untill  1845,  when  Mount  Hecla  again  became 
disastrously  active.     Mount  Hecla  has  been  the  most  frequent  in  its 


282  GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES 

eruptions  of  any  of  the  Icelandic  volcanoes.  Previous  to  1845 
there  had  been  twenty-two  recorded  eruptions  of  this  mountain, 
since  the  discovery  of  Iceland  in  the  ninth  century;  while  from  all 
the  other  volcanoes  in  the  island  there  had  been  only  twenty  dur- 
ing the  same  period.  Hecla  has  more  than  once  remained  in 
activity  for  six  years  at  a  time — a  circumstance  that  has  rendered 
it  the  best  known   of  the  volcanoes  of  this  region. 

LATER  OUTBREAKS 

After  enjoying  a  -ong  rest  of  seventy-nine  years,  this  volcano 
burst  again  into  violent  activity  in  the  beginning  of  September, 
1845.  ^^^  first  inkling  of  this  eruption  was  conveyed  to  the  Brit- 
ish Islands  by  a  fall  of  volcanic  ashes  in  the  Orkneys,  which  oc- 
curred on  the  night  of  September  2nd  during  a  violent  storm. 
This  palpable  hint  was  soon  confirmed  by  direct  intelligence  from 
Copenhagen.  On  the  ist  of  September  a  severe  earthquake,  fol- 
lowed the  same  night  by  fearful  subterranean  noises,  alarmed  the 
inhabitants  and  gave  warning  of  what  was  to  come.  About  noon 
the  next  day,  with  a  dreadful  crash,  there  openeci  in  the  sides  of  the 
volcano  two  new  mouths,  whence  two  great  streams  of  glowing 
lava  poured  forth.  They  fortunately  flowed  down  the  north- 
ern and  northwestern  sides  of  the  mountain,  where  the  low  grounds 
are  mere  barren  heaths,  affording  a  scanty  pasture  for  a  few  sheep. 
These  were  driven  before  the  fiery  stream,  but  several  of  them 
were  burnt  before  they  could  escape.  The  whole  mountain  was 
enveloped  in  clouds  of  volcanic  ashes  and  vapors.  The  rivers  near 
the  lava  currents  became  so  hot  as  to  kill  the  fish,  and  to  be  im- 
passable even  on  horseback. 

About  a  fortnight  later  there  was  a  fresh  eruption,  of  greater 
violence,  which  lasted  twenty-two  hours,  and  was  accompanied  by 


GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES  283 

detonations  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  over  the  whole  island.  Two 
new  craters  were  formed,  one  on  the  southern,  the  other  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  cone.  The  lava  issuing  from  these  craters 
flowed  to  a  distance  of  more  than  twenty-two  miles.  At  about  two 
miles  from  its  source  the  fiery  stream  was  a  mile  wide,  and  from 
40  to  50  feet  deep.  It  destroyed  a  large  extent  of  fine  pasture  and 
many  cattle.  Nearly  a  month  later,  on  the  15th  of  October,  a  fresh 
flood  of  lava  burst  from  the  southern  crater,  and  soon  heaped  up  a 
mass  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  from  40  to  60  feet  in  height,  three 
great  columns  of  vapor,  dust  and  ashes  rising  at  the  same  time 
from  the  three  new  craters  of  the  volcano.  The  mountain  contin- 
ued in  a  state  of  greater  or  less  activity  during  most  of  the  next 
year  ;  and  even  as  late  as  the  month  of  October,  1846,  after  a  brief 
pause,  it  began  again  with  renewed  vehemence.  The  volumes  of 
dust,  ashes  and  vapor,  thrown  up  from  the  craters,  and  brightly  il- 
luminated by  the  glowing  lava  beneath,  assumed  the  appearance  of 
flames,  and  ascended  to  an  immense  height. 

ELECTRIC    PHENOMENA 

Among  the  stones  tossed  out  of  the  craters  was  one  large  mass 
of  pumice  weighing  nearly  half  a  ton,  which  was  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance of  between  four  and  five  miles.  The  rivers  were  flooded  by 
the  melting  of  ice  and  snow  which  had  accumulated  on  the  moun- 
tain. The  greatest  mischief  wrought  by  these  successive  eruptions 
was  the  destruction  of  the  pasturages,  which  were  for  the  most  part 
covered  with  volcanic  ashes.  Even  where  left  exposed,  the  herbage 
acquired  a  poisonous  taint  which  proved  fatal  to  the  cattle, 
inducing  among  them  a  peculiar  murrain.  Fortunately,  owing  to 
the  nature  of  the  district  through  which  the  lava  passed,  there  was 
on  this  occasion  no  loss  of  human  life. 


284  GREAT  ICELANDIC  VOLCANOES 

The  Icelandic  volcanoes  are  remarkable  for  the  electric 
phenomena  which  they  produce  in  the  atmosphere.  Violent 
thunder-storms,  with  showers  of  rain  and  hail,  are  frequent  accom- 
paniments of  volcanic  eruptions  everywhere  ;  but  owing  to  the 
coldness  and  dryness  of  the  air  into  which  the  vapors  from  the  Ice- 
landic volcanoes  ascend,  their  condensation  is  so  sudden  and  violent 
that  great  quantities  of  electricity  are  developed.  Thunder-storms 
accompanied  by  the  most  vivid  lightnings  are  the  result.  Humboldt 
mentions  in  his  "  Cosmos  "  that,  during  an  eruption  of  Kotlugja, 
one  of  the  southern  Icelandic  volcanoes,  the  lipfhtnino-  from  the 
cloud  of  volcanic  vapor  killed  eleven  horses  and  two  men  (Cosmos 
i.  223),  Great  displays  of  the  aurora  borealis  usually  accompany 
the  volcanic  eruptions  of  this  island — doubtless  resulting  from  the 
quantity  of  electricity  imparted  to  the  higher  atmosphere  by  the 
condensation  of  the  ascending  vapors.  On  the  i8th  of  August, 
1783,  while  the  great  eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokull  was  in  progress, 
an  immense  fire-ball  passed  over  England  and  the  European  con- 
tinent as  far  as  Rome.  This  ball  which  was  estimated  to  have  had 
a  diameter  exceeding  half  a  mile,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of 
electrical  origin,  and  due  to  the  high  state  of  electric  tension  in  the 
atmosphere  over  Iceland  at  that  time. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Volcanoes  of  the  Philippines  and  Other  Pacific 

Islands. 

WE  cannot  do  better  than  open  this  chapter  with  an  account 
of  the  work  of  volcanoes  in  the  mountain-girdled  East 
Indian  island  of  Java.  This  large  and  fertile  tropical 
island  has  a  large  native  population,  and  many  European  settlers 
are  employed  in  cultivating  spices,  coffee  and  woods.  The  island 
is  rather  more  than  600  miles  long,  and  it  is  not  150  miles  broad  in 
any  part ;  and  this  narrow  shape  is  produced  by  a  chain  of  volca- 
noes which  runs  along  it.  There  is  scarcely  any  other  region  in 
the  world  where  volcanoes  are  so  numerous,  even  in  the  East,  where 
the  volcano  is  a  very  common  product  of  nature.  Some  of  the  vol- 
canoes of  Java  are  constantly  in  eruption,  while  others  are  inactive. 

One  of  their  number,  Galung  Gung,  was  previous  to  1822  cov- 
ered from  top  to  bottom  with  a  dense  forest;  around  it  were  populous 
villages.  The  mountain  was  high  ;  there  was  a  slight  hollow  on  its 
top^a  basin-like  valley,  carpeted  with  the  softest  sward  ;  brooks 
rippled  down  the  hillside  through  the  forests,  and,  joining  their 
silvery  streams,  flowed  on  through  beautiful  valleys  into  the  distant 
sea.  In  the  month  of  July,  1822,  there  were  signs  of  an  approach- 
ing disturbance  ;  this  tranquil  peacefulness  was  at  an  end  ;  one  of 
the  rivers  became  muddy,  and  its  waters  grew  hot. 

In  October,  without  any  warning,  a  most  terrific  eruption 
occurred.      A    loud    explosion  was    heard;    the    earth   shook,   and 

285 


286  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

immense  columns  of  hot  water,  boiling  mud  mixed  with  burning 
brimstone,  ashes  and  stones,  were  hurled  upwards  from  the  moun- 
tain top  like  a  waterspout,  and  with  such  wonderful  force  that 
large  quantities  fell  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  Every  valley 
near  the  mountain  became  filled  with  burning  torrents ;  the  rivers, 
swollen  with  hot  water  and  mud,  overflowed  their  banks,  and 
swept  away  the  escaping  villagers ;  and  the  bodies  of  cattle,  wild 
beasts,  and  birds  were  carried  down  the  flooded  stream. 

ERUPTION    OF    GALUNG    GUNG 

A  space  of  twenty-four  miles  between  the  mountain  and  a 
river  forty  miles  distant  was  covered  to  such  a  depth  with  blue  mud, 
that  people  were  buried  in  their  houses,  and  not  a  trace  of  the 
numerous  villages  and  plantations  was  visible.  The  boiling  mud 
and  cinders  were  cast  forth  with  such  violence  from  the  crater,  that 
while  many  distant  villages  were  utterly  destroyed  and  buried, 
others  much  nearer  the  volcano  were  scarcely  injured  ;  and  all  this 
was  done  in  five  short  hours. 

Four  days  afterwards  a  second  eruption  occurred  more  violent 
than  the  first,  and  hot  water  and  mud  were  cast  forth  with  masses 
of  slaof  like  the  rock  called  basalt  some  of  which  fell  seven  miles 
off.  A  violent  earthquake  shook  the  whole  district,  and  the  top  of 
the  mountain  fell  in,  and  so  did  one  of  its  sides,  leaving  a  gaping 
chasm.  Hills  appeared  where  there  had  been  level  land  before, 
and  the  rivers  changed  their  courses,  drowning  in  one  night  2,000 
people.  At  some  distance  from  the  mountain  a  river  runs  through 
a  laree  town,  and  the  first  intimation  the  inhabitants  had  of  all  this 
horrible  destruction  was  the  news  that  the  bodies  of  men  and  the 
carcases  of  stags,  rhinoceroses,  tigers,  and  other  animals,  were  rush- 
ing along  to  the  sea.  No  less  than  114  villages  were  destroyed, 
and  above  4,000  persons  were  killed  by  this  terrible  catastrophe. 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  287 

Fifty  years  before  this  eruption,  Mount  Papandayang,  one  of 
the  highest  burning  mountains  of  Java,  was  constantly  throwing 
out  steam  and  smoke,  but  as  no  harm  was  done,  the  natives  con- 
tinued to  Hve  on  its  sides.  Suddenly  this  enormous  mountain  fell 
in,  and  left  a  gap  fifteen  miles  long  and  six  broad.  Forty  vil- 
lages were  destroyed,  some  being  carried  down  and  others  over- 
whelmed by  mud  and  burning  lava.  No  less  than  2,957  people 
perished,  with  vast  numbers  of  cattle  ;  moreover,  most  of  the  coffee 
plantations  in  the  neighboring  districts  were  destroyed. 

Even  more  terrible  was  the  eruption  of  Mount  Salek,  another 
of  the  volcanoes  of  Java.  The  burning  of  the  mountain  was  seen 
100  miles  away,  while  the  thunders  of  its  convulsions  and  the 
tremblings  of  the  earth  reached  the  same  distance.  Seven  hills,  at 
whose  base  ran  a  river — crowded  with  dead  buffaloes,  deer,  apes, 
tigers,  and  crocodiles — slipped  down  and  became  a  level  plain. 
River-courses  were  changed,  forests  were  burnt  up,  and  the  whole 
face  of  the  country  was  completely  altered. 

Later  volcanic  eruptions  in  Java  include  that  of  1843,  when 
Mount  Guntur  flung  out  sand  and  ashes  estimated  at  the  vast  total 
of  thirty  million  tons,  and  those  of  1849  ^^<^  1872  when  Mount 
Merapi,  a  very  active  volcano,  covered  a  great  extent  of  country 
with  stones  and  ashes,  and  ruined  the  coffee  plantations  of  the 
neighboring  districts. 

We  have  said  nothing  concerning  the  most  terrible  explosion 
of  all,  that  of  the  volcanic  island  of  Krakatoa,  off  the  Javan  coast. 
This  event  was  so  phenomenal  as  to  deserve  a  chapter  of  its  own, 
for  which  we  reserve  it. 

The  United  States,  as  one  result  of  its  recent  acquisition  of  is- 
land dominions,  has  added  largely  to  its  wealth  in  volcanic  moun- 
tains.    The  famous  Hawaiian  craters,  far  the  greatest  in  the  world, 


288  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

now  belong  to  our  national  estate,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  con- 
tain  various  others,  of  less  importance,  yet  some  of  which  have 
proved  very  destructive.  A  description  of  those  of  the  Island  of 
Luzon,  which  are  the  most  active  in  the  archipelago,  is  here  sub- 
joined : 

THE    LUZON    VOLCANOES. 

Volcanoes  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  and  have  left  traces  of  their  former  activity 
in  all  directions.  Most  of  them,  however,  have  long  been  dead  and 
silent,  only  a  few  of  the  once  numerous  group  being  now  active. 
Of  these  there  are  three  of  importance  in  the  southern  region  of 
Luzon — Taal,  Bulusan  and  Mayon  or  Albay. 

The  last  named  of  these  is  the  largest  and  most  active  of  the 
existing  volcanoes.  In  form  it  is  of  marvellous  grace  and  beauty, 
forming  a  perfect  cone,  about  fifty  miles  in  circuit  at  base  and  ris- 
ing to  a  height  of  8,900  feet.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
landmarks  to  navigators  in  the  island.  From  its  crater  streams 
upward  a  constant  smoke,  accompanied  at  times  by  flame,  while 
from  its  depths  issue  subterranean  sounds,  often  heard  at  a  distance 
of  many  leagues.  The  whole  surrounding  country  is  marked  by 
evidences  of  old  eruptions. 

This  mountain,  in  1767,  sent  up  a  cone  of  flame  of  forty  feet  in 
diameter  at  base,  for  ten  days,  and  for  two  months  a  wide  stream  of 
lava  poured  from  its  crater.  A  month  later  there  gushed  forth 
great  floods  of  water,  which  filled  the  rivers  to  overflow,  doing 
widespread  damage  to  the  neighboring  plantations.  But  its  great- 
est and  most  destructive  eruption  took  place  in  181 2,  the  year  of  the 
great  eruption  of  the  St,  Vincent  volcano.  On  this  fatal  occasion 
several  towns  were  destroyed  and  no  less  than  1 2,000  people  lost 
their  lives.   The  debris  flune  forth  from  the  crater  were  so  abundant 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  289 

that  deposits  deep  enough  to  bury  the  tallest  trees  were  formed 
near  the  mountain.  In  1867  another  disastrous  explosion  took 
place,  and  still  another  in  1888.  A  disaster  different  in  kind  and 
cause  occurred  in  1876,  when  a  terrible  tropical  storm  burst  upon 
the  mountain.  The  floods  of  rain  swept  from  its  sides  the  loose 
volcanic  material,  and  brought  destruction  to  the  neighboring  coun- 
try, more  than  six  thousand  houses  being  ruined  by  the  rushing 
flood. 

BULUSAN    AND    TAAL 

Bulusan,  a  volcano  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island,  re- 
sembles Vesuvius  in  shape.  For  many  years  it  remained  dormant, 
but  in  1852  smoke  began  to  issue  from  its  crater.  In  some  respects 
the  most  interesting  of  these  three  volcanoes  is  that  of  Taal,  which 
lies  almost  due  south  of  Manila  and  about  forty-five  miles  distant,  on 
a  small  island  in  the  middle  of  a  large  lake,  known  as  Bombom  or 
Bono^bonof.  A  remarkable  feature  of  this  volcanic  mountain  is  that 
it  is  probably  the  lowest  in  the  world,  its  height  being  only  850  feet 
above  sea  level.  There  are  doubtful  traditions  that  Lake  Bombom, 
a  hundred  square  miles  in  extent,  was  formed  by  a  terrible  eruption 
in  1700,  by  which  a  lofty  mountain  8000  or  9000  feet  high,  was 
destroyed.  The  vast  deposits  of  porous  tufa  in  the  surrounding 
country  are  certainly  evidences  of  former  great  eruptions  from 
Mount  Taal. 

The  crater  of  this  volcano  is  an  immense,  cup-shaped  depres- 
sion, a  mile  or  more  in  diameter  and  about  800  feet  deep.  When 
recently  visited  by  Professor  Worcester,  during  his  travels  in  these 
islands,  he  found  it  to  contain  three  boiling  lakelets  of  strangely- 
colored  water,  one  being  of  a  dirty  brown  hue,  a  second  intensely 
yellow  in  tint,  and  the  third  of  a  brilliant  emerald  green.  The 
mountain  still  steams  and  fumes,  as  if  too  actively  at  work  below 
19 


290  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

to  be  at  rest  above.  In  past  times  it  has  shown  the  forces  at 
play  in  its  depths  by  breaking  at  times  into  frightful  activity.  Of 
the  various  explosions  on  record,  the  three  most  violent  were  those 
of  1 716,  1749,  and  1754.  In  the  last-named  year  the  earth  for 
miles  round  quaked  with  the  convulsive  throes  of  the  deeply  dis- 
turbed mountain,  and  vast  quantities  of  volcanic  dust  were  hurled 
high  into  the  air,  sufficient  to  make  it  dark  at  midday  for  many 
leagues  around.  The  roofs  of  distant  Manila  were  covered  with 
volcanic  dust  and  ashes.  Molten  lava  also  poured  from  the  crater 
and  flowed  into  the  lake,  which  boiled  with  the  intense  heat,  while 
great  showers  of  stones  and  ashes  fell  into  its  waters. 

VOLCANOES    IN    THE    SOUTHERN    ISLANDS 

Extinct  volcanoes  are  numerous  in  Luzon,  and  there  are 
smoking  cones  in  the  north,  and  also  in  the  Babuyanes  Islands  still 
farther  north.  Volcanoes  also  exist  in  several  of  the  other  islands. 
On  Negros  is  the  active  peak  of  Malaspina,  and  on  Camiguin,  an 
island  about  ninety  miles  to  the  southeast,  a  new  volcano  broke  out 
in  1876.  The  large  island  of  Mindanao  has  three  volcanoes,  of 
which  Cottabato  was  in  eruption  in  1856  and  is  still  active  at  inter- 
vals. Apo,  the  largest  of  the  three,  estimated  to  be  10,312  feet 
high,  has  three  summits,  within  which  lies  the  great  crater,  now 
extinct  and  filled  with  water. 

In  evidence  of  former  volcanic  activity  are  the  abundant 
deposits  of  sulphur  on  the  island  of  Leyte,  the  hot  springs  in  various 
localities,  and  the  earthquakes  which  occasionally  bring  death  and 
destruction.  Of  the  many  of  these  on  record,  the  most  destructive 
was  in  1863,  when  400  people  were  killed  and  2,000  injured,  while 
many  buildings  were  wrecked.  Another  in  1880  wrought  great 
destruction   in   Manila  and  elsewhere,  though  without  loss  of  life. 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  291 

An  earthquake  in  Mindanao  in  1675  opened  a  passage  to  the  sea, 
and  a  vast  plain  emerged.  These  convulsions  of  the  earth  affect 
the  form  and  elevation  of  buildings,  which  are  rarely  more  than  two 
stories  high  and  lightly  built,  while  translucent  sea-shells  replace 
glass  in  their  windows. 

While  Java  is  the  most  prolific  in  volcanoes  of  the  islands  of 
the  Malayan  Archipelago,  other  islands  of  the  group  possess  ac- 
tive cones,  including  Sumatra,  Bali,  Amboyna,  Banda  and  others.  In 
Sanguir,  an  island  north  of  Celebes,  is  a  volcanic  mountain  from 
which  there  was  a  destructive  eruption  in  1856.  The  country  was 
devastated  with  lava,  stones  and  volcanic  ashes,  ruining  a  wide  dis- 
trict and  killing  nearly  3,000  of  the  inhabitants.  Mount  Madrian,  in 
one  of  the  Spice  Islands,  was  rent  in  twain  by  a  fierce  eruption  in 
1646,  and  since  then  has  remained  two  distinct  mountains.  It 
became  active  again  in  1862,  after  two  centuries  of  repose,  and 
caused  great  loss  of  life  and  property.  Sorea,  a  small  island  of  the 
same  group,  forming  but  a  single  volcanic  mountain,  had  an  erup- 
tion in  1693,  the  cone  crumbling  gradually  till  a  vast  crater  was 
formed,  filled  with  liquid  lava  and  occupying  nearly  half  the  island. 
This  lake  of  fire  increased  in  size  by  the  same  process  till  in  the 
end  it  took  possession  of  the  island  and  forced  all  the  inhabitants 
to  flee  to  more  hospitable  shores. 

THE    GREAT    ERUPTION    OF    TOMBORO 

But  of  the  East  Indian  Islands,  Sumbawa,  lying  east  of  Java, 
contains  the  most  formidable  volcano — one,  indeed,  scarcely  with- 
out a  rival  in  the  world.  This  is  named  Tomboro.  Of  its  various 
eruptions  the  most  furious  on  record  was  that  of  181 5.  This,  as 
we  are  told  by  Sir  Stamford  Rafifles,  far  exceeded  in  force  and  dur- 
ation   any  of   the  known  outbreaks  of  Etna   or  Vesuvius.      The 


292  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

ground  trembled  and  the  echoes  of  its  roar  were  heard  through  an 
area  of  i,ooo  miles  around  the  volcano,  and  to  a  distance  of  300 
miles  its  effects  were  astounding. 

In  Java,  300  miles  away,  ashes  filled  the  air  so  thickly  that  the 
solar  rays  could  not  penetrate  them,  and  fell  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches.  The  detonations  were  so  similar  to  the  reports  of  artillery 
as  to  be  mistaken  for  them.  The  Rajah  of  Sang'ir,  who  was  an 
eye-witness  of  the  eruption,  thus  described  it  to  Sir  Stamford  : 

"About  7  p.  M.  on  the  loth  of  April,  three  distinct  columns  of 
flame  burst  forth  near  the  top  of  the  Tomboro  mountain  (all  of 
them  apparently  within  the  verge  of  the  crater),  and,  after  ascend- 
ing separately  to  a  very  great  height,  their  tops  united  in  the  air  in 
a  troubled,  confused  manner.  In  a  short  time  the  whole  mountain 
next  Sang'ir  appeared  like  a  body  of  liquid  fire,  extending  itself  in 
every  direction.  The  fire  and  columns  of  flame  continued  to  rage 
with  unabated  fury,  until  the  darkness  caused  by  the  quantity  of 
falling  matter  obscured  them,  at  about  8  p.  m.  Stones  at  this  time  fell 
very  thick  at  Sang'ir — some  of  them  as  large  as  two  fists,  but 
generally  not  larger  than  walnuts.  Between  9  and  10  p.  m.  ashes 
began  to  fall,  and  soon  after  a  violent  whirlwind  ensued,  which 
blew  down  nearly  every  house  in  the  village  of  Sang'ir — carrying  the 
roofs  and  light  parts  away  with  it.  In  the  port  of  Sang'ir,  adjoin- 
ing Tomboro,  its  effects  were  m^uch  more  violent — tearing  up 
by  the  roots  the  largest  trees,  and  carrying  them  into  the  air, 
together  with  men,  horses,  cattle,  and  whatever  else  came  within 
its  influence.  This  will  account  for  the  immense  number  of  float- 
ing trees  seen  at  sea.  The  sea  rose  nearly  twelve  feet  higher  than 
it  had  ever  been  known  to  do  before,  and  completely  spoiled  the 
only  spots  of  rice-land  in  Sang'ir — sweeping  away  houses  and 
everything  within  its  reach.     The  whirlwind   lasted  about  an  hour. 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  293 

No  explosions  were  heard  till  the  whirlwind  had  ceased,  at  about 
II  P.M.  From  midnight  till  the  evening  of  the  iith,  they  con- 
tinued without  intermission.  After  that  time  their  violence 
moderated,  and  they  were  heard  only  at  intervals  ;  but  the  ex- 
plosions did  not  cease  entirely  until  the  15th  of  July.  Of  all  the 
villages  of  Tomboro,  Tempo,  containing  about  forty  inhabitants,  is 
the  only  one  remaining.  In  Pekate  no  vestige  of  a  house  is 
left ;  twenty-six  of  the  people,  who  were  at  Sumbawa  at  the  time, 
are  the  whole  of  the  population  who  have  escaped.  From  the 
most  particular  inquiries  I  have  been  able  to  make,  there  were  cer- 
tainly no  fewer  than  12,000  individuals  in  Tomboro  and  Pekate  at 
the  time  of  the  eruption,  of  whom  only  five  or  six  survive.  The 
trees  and  herbage  of  every  description,  along  the  whole  of  the 
north  and  west  sides  of  the  peninsula,  have  been  completely 
destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  those  on  a  high  point  of  land,  near 
the  spot  where  the  village  of  Toniboro  stood." 

Tomboro  village  was  not  only  invaded  by  the  sea  on  this 
occasion,  but  its  site  permanently  subsided  ;  so  that  there  is  now 
eighteen  feet  of  water  where  there  was  formerly  dry  land. 

THE    VOLCANOES    OF    JAPAN 

The  Japanese  archipelago,  as  stated  in  an  earlier  chapter,  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  volcanoes,  a  number  of  them  being  active. 
Of  these  the  best  known  to  travelers  is  Asamayama,  a  mountain 
8,500  feet  high,  of  which  there  are  several  recorded  eruptions.  The 
first  of  these  was  in  r65o;  after  which  the  volcano  remained  feebly 
active  till  1783,  when  it  broke  out  in  a  very  severe  eruption.  In 
1870  there  was  another  of  some  severity,  accompanied  by  violent 
shocks  of  earthquake  felt  at  Yokohama.  The  crater  is  very  deep, 
with  irregular  rocky  walls  of  a  sulphurous  character. 


294  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

Far  the  most  famous  of  all  the  Japanese  mountains,  however, 
is  that  named  Fuji-san,  but  commonly  termed  in  English  Fujiyama 
or  Fusiyama.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  and  is  the  most 
prominent  object  in  the  landscape  for  many  miles  around.  The 
apex  is  shaped  somewhat  like  an  eight-petaled  lotus  flower,  and 
offers  to  view  from  different  directions  from  three  to  five  peaks. 

Though  now  apparently  extinct,  it  was  formerly  an  active  vol- 
cano, and  is  credited  in  history  with  several  very  disastrous  erup- 
tions. The  last  of  these  was  in  i  707,  at  which  time  the  whole  summit 
burst  into  flames.  Rocks  were  split  and  shattered  by  the  heat,  and 
stones  fell  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  in  Yeddo  (now  Tokyo),  sixty 
miles  away.  At  present  there  are  in  its  crater,  which  has  a  depth 
of  700  or  800  feet,  neither  sulphurous  exhalations  nor  steam.  Accord- 
ing to  Japanese  tradition  this  great  peak  was  upheaved  in  a  single 
night  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  more  than  twenty-one  hundred 
years  ago. 

Nothing  can  be  more  majestic  than  this  volcano,  extinct 
though  it  be,  rising  in  an  immense  cone  from  the  plain  to  the  height 
of  over  twelve  thousand  feet,  truncated  at  the  top,  and  with  its 
peak  almost  always  snow-covered.  Its  ascent  is  not  difficult  to  an 
expert  climber,  and  has  frequently  been  made.  From  its  summit 
is  unfolded  a  panorama  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  describe,  and 
probably  the  most  remarkable  on  the  globe.  Mountains,  valleys, 
lakes,  forests  and  the  villages  of  thirteen  counties  may  be  seen. 
As  we  gaze  upon  its  beautifully  shaped  and  lofty  mass,  visible  even 
from  Yokohama  and  a  hundred  miles  at  sea,  one  does  not  wonder 
that  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  holy  mountain,  and  that  it  should 
form  a  conspicuous  object  in  every  Japanese  work  of  art.  It  is  to 
the  natives  of  Japan  as  Mont  Blanc  is  to  Europeans,  the  "  monarch 
of  mountains," 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  295 

In  summer  pilgrimages  are  made  around  the  base  of  the  summit 
elevation,  and  there  are  on  the  upward  path  a  number  of  Buddhist 
temples  and  shrines,  made  of  blocks  of  stone,  for  devotion,  shelter 
and  the  storage  of  food  for  pilgrims.  Hakone  Lake  is  three  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea,  and  probably  lies  in  the  crater  of  an  extinct 
volcano.  Its  waters  are  very  deep  ;  it  is  several  miles  long  and 
wide,  and  is  surrounded  by  high  hills  which  abound  in  fine  scenery, 
solfataras  and  mineral  springs. 

HOT    SPRINGS    NEAR    HAKONE    LAKE 

At  this  place  the  mountain  seems  to  be  smouldering,  as  sul- 
phur fumes  and  steam  issue  at  many  points,  and  the  ground  is 
covered  with  a  friable  white  alkaline  substance.  In  many  a  hollow 
the  water  bubbles  with  clouds  of  vapor  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ; 
here  the  soil  is  hot  and  evidently  underlaid  by  active  fires.  It  is 
not  safe  to  go  very  near,  as  the  crust  is  thin  and  crumbling.  The 
water  running  down  the  hills  has  a  refreshing  sound  and  a  tempt- 
ing clearness,  but  the  thirsty  tongue  at  once  detects  it  to  be  a  very 
strong  solution  of  alum.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  place  is  infernal, 
and  naturally  suggests  the  name  given  its  principal  geyser,  O-gigoko 
(Big  Hell). 

Fujiyama  is  almost  a  perfect  cone,with,  as  above  said,  a  truncated 
top,  in  which  is  the  crater.  It  is,  however,  less  steep  than  Mayon.  Its 
upper  part  is  comparatively  steep,  even  to  thirty-five  degrees,  but 
below  this  portion  the  inclination  gradually  lessens,  till  its  elegant 
outlines  are  lost  in  the  plain  from  which  it  rises.  The  curves  of 
the  sides  depend  partly  on  the  nature,  size  and  shape  of  the  ejected 
material,  the  fine  uniform  pieces  remaining  on  comparatively  steep 
slopes,  while  the  larger  and  rounder  ones  roll  farther  down,  resting 
on  the  inclination  that  afterward  becomes  curved  from  the  subsidence 
of  the  central  mass. 


296  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

The  most  recent  and  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  volcanic 
eruptions  recorded  in  Japan  was  that  of  Bandaisan  or  Baldaisan. 
For  ages  this  mountain  had  been  peaceful,  and  there  was  scarcely 
an  indication  of  its  volcanic  character  or  of  the  terrific  forces  which 
lay  dormant  deep  within  its  heart.  On  its  flanks  lay  some  small 
deposits  of  scoriae,  indications  of  far-past  eruptions,  and  there  were 
some  hot  springs  at  its  base,  while  steam  arose  from  a  fissure.  Yet 
there  was  nothing  to  warn  the  people  of  the  vicinity  that  deadly 
peril  lay  under  their  feet. 

bandaisan's  work  of  terror 

This  sense  of  security  was  fatally  dissipated  on  a  day  in  July, 
1888,  when  the  mountain  suddenly  broke  into  eruption  and  flung 
1,600  million  cubic  yards  of  its  summit  material  so  high  into  the 
air  that  many  of  the  falling  fragments,  in  their  fall,  struck  the 
ground  with  such  velocity  as  to  be  buried  far  out  of  sight.  The 
steam  and  dust  were  driven  to  a  height  of  13,000  feet,  where  they 
spread  into  a  canopy  of  much  greater  elevation,  causing  pitchy  dark- 
ness beneath.  There  were  from  fifteen  to  twenty  violent  explosions, 
and  a  great  landslide  devastated  about  thirty  square  miles  and 
buried  many  villages  in  the  Nagase  Valley. 

Mr.  Norman,  a  traveler  who  visited  the  spot  shortly  after- 
ward, thus  describes  the  scene  of  ruin.  After  a  journey  through 
the  forests  which  clothed  the  slopes  of  the  volcanic  mountain  and 
prevented  any  distant  view,  the  travelers  at  last  found  themselves 
"  standing  upon  the  ragged  edge  of  what  was  left  of  the  mountain 
of  Bandaisan,  after  two-thirds  of  it,  including,  of  course,  the  summit, 
had  been  literally  blown  away  and  spread  over  the  face  of  the 
country. 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  297 

"  The  original  cone  of  the  mountain,"  he  continues,  "  had  been 
truncated  at  an  acute  angle  to  its  axis.  From  our  very  feet  a  pre- 
cipitous mud  slope  falls  away  for  half  a  mile  or  more  till  it  reaches 
the  level.  At  our  right,  still  below  us,  rises  a  mud  wall  a  mile  long, 
also  sloping  down  to  the  level,  and  behind  it  is  evidently  the  crater; 
but  before  us,  for  five  miles  in  a  straight  line,  and  on  each  side 
nearly  as  far,  is  a  sea  of  congealed  mud,  broken  up  into  ripples  and 
waves  and  great  billows,  and  bearing  upon  its  bosom  a  thousand 
huge  boulders,  weighing  hundreds  of  tons  apiece." 

On  reaching  the  crater  he  found  it  to  resemble  a  gigantic 
cauldron,  fully  a  mile  in  width,  and  enclosed  with  precipitous  walls 
of  indurated  mud.  From  several  orifices  volumes  of  steam  rose 
into  the  air,  and  when  the  vapor  cleared  away  for  a  moment  glimpses 
of  a  mass  of  boiling  mud  were  obtained.  Before  the  eruption  the 
mountain  top  had  terminated  in  three  peaks.  Of  these  the  highest 
had  an  elevation  of  about  5,800  feet.  The  peak  destroyed  was  the 
middle  one,  which  was  rather  smaller  than  the  other  two. 

"The  explosion  was  caused  by  steam  ;  there  was  neither  fire 
nor  lava  of  any  kind.  It  was,  in  fact,  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
a  gigantic  boiler  explosion.  The  whole  top  and  one  side  of  Sho- 
Bandai-san  had  been  blown  into  the  air  in  a  lateral  direction,  and 
the  earth  of  the  mountain  was  converted  by  the  escaping  steam,  at 
the  moment  of  the  explosion,  into  boiling  mud,  part  of  which  was 
projected  into  the  air  to  fall  at  a  long  distance,  and  then  take  the 
form  of  an  overflowing  river,  which  rushed  with  vast  rapidity  and 
covered  the  country  to  a  depth  of  from  20  to  150  feet.  Thirty 
square  miles  of  country  were  thus  devastated." 

In  the  devastated  lowlands  and  buried  villages  below  and 
on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  many  lives  were  lost.  From  the 
survivors   Mr.  Norman   gathered   some  information,  enabling  nim 


298  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

to  describe   the  main  features  of  the   catastrophe.     We  append   a 
brief  outhne  of  his  narrative  : 

MR.    NORMAN's    narrative 

"  At  a  few  minutes  past  8  o'clock  in  the  morning  a  frightful 
noise  was  heard  by  the  inhabitants  of  a  village  ten  miles  distant 
from  the  crater.  Some  of  them  instinctively  took  to  flight,  but 
before  they  could  run  much  more  than  a  hundred  yards  the  light 
of  day  was  suddenly  changed  into  a  darkness  more  intense  than 
that  of  midnight ;  a  shower  of  blinding  hot  ashes  and  sand  poured 
down  upon  them  ;  the  ground  was  shaken  with  earthquakes,  and 
explosion  followed  explosion,  the  last  being  the  most  violent  of  all. 
Many  fugitives,  as  well  as  people  in  the  houses,  were  overwhelmed 
by  the  deluge  of  mud,  none  of  the  fugitives,  when  overtaken  by 
death,  being  more  than  two  hundred  yards  from  the  village.  From 
the  statements  made  by  those  fortunate  enough  to  escape  with 
their  lives,  and  from  a  personal  examination  of  the  ground,  Mr.  Nor- 
man inferred  that  the  mud  must  have  been  flung  fully  six  miles 
through  the  air  and  then  have  poured  in  a  torrent  along  the  ground 
for  four  miles  further.  All  this  was  done  in  less  than  five  minutes,  so 
that  "millions  of  tons  of  boiling  mud  were  hurled  over  the  country 
at  the  rate  of  two  miles  a  minute." 

The  velocity  of  the  mud  torrent  may  perhaps  be  overestimated, 
but  in  its  awful  suddenness  this  catastrophe  was  evidently  one  with 
few  equals.  The  cone  destroyed  may  have  been  largely  composed 
of  rather  fine  ashes  and  scoriae,  which  was  almost  instantaneously 
converted  into  mud  by  the  condensing  steam  and  the  boiling  water 
ejected.  The  quantity  of  water  thus  discharged  must  have  been 
enormous. 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  299 

Of  the  remaining  volcanic  regions  of  the  Pacific,  the  New  Zea- 
land islands  present  some  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  activity. 
All  the  central  parts,  indeed,  of  the  northern  island  of  the  group 
are  of  a  highly  volcanic  character.  There  is  here  a  mountain 
named  Tongariro,  on  whose  snow-clad  summit  is  a  deep  crater, 
from  which  volcanic  vapors  are  seen  to  issue,  and  which  exhib- 
its other  indications  of  having  been  in  a  state  of  greater  activity 
at  a  not  very  remote  period  of  time.  There  is  also,  at  no  great 
distance  from  this  mountain,  a  region  containing  numerous  funnel- 
shaped  chasms,  emitting  hot  water,  or  steam,  or  sulphurous  vapors, 
or  boiling  mud.  The  earthquakes  in  New  Zealand  had  probably 
their  origin  in  this  volcanic  focus. 

THE    NEW    ZEALAND    VOLCANOES 

Tongariro  has  a  height  of  about  6,500  feet,  while  Egmont, 
8,270  feet  in  height,  is  a  perfect  cone  with  a  perpetual  cap  of  snow. 
There  are  many  other  volcanic  mountains,  and  also  great  numbers 
of  mud  volcanoes,  hot  springs  and  geysers.  It  is  for  the  latter 
that  the  island  is  best  known  to  oreolog^ists.  Their  waters  are  at  or 
near  the  boiling  point  and  contain  silica  in  abundance. 

At  a  place  called  Rotomahana,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Tara- 
wera,  there  was  formerly  a  lake  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
acres  in  area,  which  was  in  its  way  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
bodies  of  water  upon  the  earth.  Formerly,  we  say,  for  this  lake  no 
longer  exists,  it  having  been  destroyed  by  the  very  forces  to  which  it 
owed  its  fame.  Its  waters  were  maintained  nearly  at  the  boiling  point 
by  the  continual  accession  of  boiling  water  from  numerous  springs. 
The  most  abundant  of  those  sources  was  situated  at  the  height  of 
about  100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake.  It  kept  continually 
filled  an  oval  basin  about  250  feet  in  circumference — the  margins  of 


300  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

which  were  fringed  all  round  with  beautiful  pure  white  stalactites, 
formed  by  deposits  of  silica,  with  which  the  hot  water  was  strongly 
impregnated.  At  various  stages  below  the  principal  spring  were 
several  others,  that  contributed  to  feed  the  lake  at  the  bottom,  in 
the  centre  of  which  was  a  small  island.  Minute  bubbles  contin- 
ually escaped  from  the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  hissing  sound, 
and  the  sand  all  round  the  lake  was  at  a  high  temperature.  If  a 
stick  was  thrust  into  it,  very  hot"  vapors  would  ascend  from  the  hole. 
Not  far  from  this  lake  were  several  small  basins  filled  with  tepid 
water,  which  was  very  clear,  and  of  a  blue  color. 

The  conditions  here  were  of  a  kind  with  those  to  which  are 
due  the  great  geysers  of  Iceland  and  the  Yellowstone  Park,  but 
different  in  the  fact  that  instead  of  being  intermittent  and  throw- 
ing up  jets  at  intervals,  the  springs  allowed  the  water  to  flow  from 
them  in  a  continuous  stream. 

THE    PINK    AND    WHITE    TERRACES 

The  silicious  incrustations  left  by  the  overflow  from  the  large 
pool  had  made  a  series  of  terraces,  two  to  six  feet  high,  with  the 
appearance  of  being  hewn  from  white  or  pink  marble  ;  each  of  the 
basins  containing  a  similar  azure  water.  These  terraces  covered 
an  area  of  about  three  acres,  and  looked  like  a  series  of  cataracts 
chano-ed  into  stone,  each  edge  being  fringed  with  a  festoon  of  deli- 
cate stalactites.  The  water  contained  about  eighty-five  per  cent,  of 
silica,  with  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  iron  alumina,  and  a  little 
alkali. 

There  were  no  more  beautiful  products  of  nature  upon  the 
earth  than  those  "  pink  and  white  terraces,"  as  they  were  called. 
The  hot  springs  of  the  Yellowstone  have  produced  formations 
resembling  them,  but   not   their   equal   in   fairy-like   charm.      One 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 


301 


series  of  these  terraced  pools  and  cascades  was  of  the  purest  white 
tint,  the  other  of  the  most  dehcate  pink,  the  waters  topping  ove^ 
the  edge  of  each  pool  and  falling  in  a  miniature  cascadcto  the  one 
next  below,  thus  keeping  the  edges  built  up  by  a  continual  renewal 
of  the  silicious  incrustation.  But  all  their  beauty  could  not  save 
them  from  utter  and  irremediable  destruction  by  the  forces  below 
the  earth's  surface. 

On  June  9,  1886,  a  great  volcanic   disturbance  began   in  the 


PINK  AND  WHITE  TERRACES  OF  LAKE  ROTO  MAHAMA,  NEW  ZEALAND. 

Auckland  Lake  region  with  a  tremendous  earthquake,  followed  dur- 
ing the  night  by  many  others.  At  seven  the  next  morning  a  lead- 
covered  cloud  of  pumice  sand,  advancing  from  the  south,  burst  and 
discharged  showers  of  fine  dust.  The  rangre  of  Mount  Tarawera 
seemed  to  be  in  full  volcanic  activity,  including  some  craters  sup- 
posed to  be  extinct,  and  embracing  an  area  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  by  twenty. 


302  VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

The  showers  of  dust  were  so  thick  as  to  turn  day  into  night 
for  nearly  two  days.  Some  Hves  were  lost,  and  several  villages 
were  destroyed,  these  being  covered  ten  feet  deep  with  ashes,  dust 
and  clayey  mud.  The  volcanic  phenomena  were  of  the  most  vio- 
lent character,  and  the  whole  island  appears  to  have  been  more  or 
less  convulsed.  Mount  Tarawera  is  said  to  be  five  hundred  feet 
higher  than  before  the  eruption  ;  glowing  masses  were  thrown  up 
into  the  air,  and  tongues  of  fiery  hue,  gases  or  illuminated  vapors, 
five  hundred  feet  wide,  towered  up  one  thousand  feet  high.  The 
mountain  was  2,700  feet  in  height. 

TARAWERA    IN    ERUPTION 

This  eruption  presented  a  spectacle  of  rarely-equalled  gran- 
deur. To  travelers  and  strangers  the  greatest  resultant  loss  will  be 
the  destruction  of  those  world-famous  curiosities,  the  white  and 
pink  terraces,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Rotomahana  and  the  region 
of  the  famous  geysers.  The  natives  have  a  superstition  that  the 
eruption  of  the  extinct  Tarawera  was  caused  by  the  profanation  of 
foreign  footsteps.  It  was  to  them  a  sacred  place,  and  its  crater  a 
repository  for  their  dead.  The  first  earthquake  occurred  in  this 
region.  One  side  of  the  mountain  fell  in,  and  then  the  eruption 
began.  The  basin  of  the  lake  was  broken  up  and  disappeared,  but 
again  reappeared  as  a  boiling  mud  cauldron  ;  craters  burst  out  in 
various  places,  and  the  beautiful  terraces  were  no  more.  After 
the  first  day  the  violence  gradually  diminished,  and  in  a  week  had 
ceased.  Very  possibly  another  lake  will  be  formed,  and  in  time 
other  terraces ;  but  it  is  hardly  within  the  range  of  probability  that 
the  beauty  of  the  lost  terraces  will  ever  be  paralleled. 

In  this  eruption,  as  usual,  we  find  the  earthquake  preceding 
the  volcanic  outburst.      New  Zealand,  like  the  Philippines,  Java  and 


VOLCANOES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  303 

the  Japanese  Islands,  is  situated  over  a  great  earth-fissure  or  Hne 
of  weakness.  Subsidence  or  dislocation  from  tensile  strain  of  the 
crust  took  place,  and  the  influx  of  water  to  new  regions  of  heated 
strata  may  have  developed  the  explosive  force.  The  earthquake  and 
the  volcano  worked  together  here,  as  they  frequently  do,  unfortun- 
ately in  this  case  destroying  one  of  the  most  beautiful  scenes  on 
the  surface  of  the  globe. 

THE    ANTARCTIC    VOLCANOES 

Much  further  south,  on  the  frozen  shore  of  Victoria  Land  in 
the  Antarctic  regions.  Sir  James  Ross,  in  1841,  sailing  in  his  dis- 
covery ships  the  Erehts  and  Terror,  discovered  two  great  volcanic 
mountains,  which  he  named  after  those  two  vessels.  Mount 
Erebus  is  continually  covered,  from  top  to  bottom,  with  snow  and 
glaciers.  The  mountain  is  about  12,000  feet  high,  and  although 
the  snow  reaches  to  the  very  edge  of  the  crater,  there  rise  con- 
tinually from  the  summit  immense  volumes  of  volcanic  fumes,  illumi- 
nated by  the  glare  of  glowing  lava  beneath  them.  The  vapors 
ascend  to  an  estimated  height  of  2,200  feet  above  the  top  of  the 
mountain. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

The  Wonderful  Hawaiian  Craters  and  Kilauea's 

Lake  of  Fire. 

IN  the  central  region  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  Hes  the  archi- 
pelago formerly  known  as  the  Sandwich  Islands,  now  collec- 
tively designated  as  Hawaii.  The  people  of  the  United  States 
should  be  specially  interested  in  this  island  group,  for  it  has  become 
one  of  our  possessions,  an  outlying  Territory  of  our  growing 
Republic,  and  in  making  it  part  of  our  national  domain  we  have 
not  alone  extended  our  dominion  far  over  the  seas,  but  have  added 
to  the  many  marvels  of  nature  within  our  land  one  of  the  chief 
wonders  of  the  world,  the  stupendous  Hawaiian  volcanoes,  before 
whose  grandeur  many  of  more  ancient  fame  sink  into  insignificance. 

THE    ISLAND    OF    HAWAII 

The  Island  of  Hawaii,  the  principal  island  of  the  group,  we 
may  safely  say  contains  the  most  enormous  volcano  of  the  earth. 
Indeed,  the  whole  island,  which  is  400c  square  miles  in  extent, 
may  be  regarded  as  of  volcanic  origin.  It  contains  four  volcanic 
mountains — Kohola,  Hualalia,  Mauna  Kea  and  Mauna  Loa.  The 
two  last  named  are  the  chief,  the  former  being  13,800  feet,  the  latter 
13,600  feet,  above  the  sea-level.  Although  their  height  is  so  vast, 
the  ascent  to  their  summits  is  so  gradual  that  their  circumference 
at  the  base  is  enormous.  The  bulk  of  each  of  them  is  reckoned  to 
be  equal  to  two  and  a  half  times  that  of  Etna.  Some  of  the  streams 
304 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  305 

of  lava  which   have   emanated  from   them  are  twenty-six  miles   in 
length  by  two  miles  in  breadth. 

On  the  adjoining  island  of  Maui  is  a  still  larger  volcano,  the 
mighty  Haleakala,  long  since  extinct,  but  memorable  as  possessing 
the  most  stupendous  crater  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  moun- 
tain itself  is  over  10,000  feet  high,  and  forms  a  great  dome-like 
mass  of  90  miles  circumference  at  base.  The  crater  on  its  summit 
has  a  length  of  7^  and  a  width  of  2^^  miles,  with  a  total  area  of 
about  sixteen  square  miles.  The  only  approach  in  dimensions  to 
this  enormous  opening  exists  in  the  still  living  crater  of  Kilauea, 
on  the  flank  of  Mauna  Loa. 

A    VOLCANIC    ISLAND    GROUP 

The  peaks  named  are  the  most  apparent  remnants  of  a  world- 
rending  volcanic  activity  in  the  remote  past,  by  whose  force  this 
whole  Hawaiian  island  group  was  lifted  up  from  the  depths  of  the 
ocean,  here  descending  some  three  and  a  half  miles  below  the  sur- 
face level.  The  coral  reefs  which  abound  around  the  islands  are 
of  comparatively  recent  formation,  and  rest  upon  a  substratum  of 
lava  probably  ages  older,  which  forms  the  base  of  the  archi- 
pelago. The  islands  are  volcanic  peaks  and  ridges  that  have  been 
pushed  up  above  the  surrounding  seas  by  the  profound  action  of 
the  interior  forces  of  the  earth. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  action  was  a  violent  perpen- 
dicular thrust  upward  over  a  very  limited  locality,  for  the  mountains 
continue  to  slope  at  about  the  same  angle  under  the  sea  and  for 
great  distances  on  every  side,  so  that  the  islands  are  really  the 
crests  of  an  extensive  elevation,  estimated  to  cover  an  area  of  about 
2000  miles  in  one  direction  by  150  or  200  miles  in  the  other.     The 

process  was  probably  a  gradual  one  of  up-building,  by  means  of 
20 


3o6  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

which  the  sea  receded  as  the  land  steadily  rose.  Some  idea  of  the 
mighty  forces  that  have  been  at  work  beneath  the  sea  and  above  it 
can  be  gained  by  considering  the  enormous  mass  of  material  now 
above  the  sea-level.  Thus,  the  bulk  of  the  island  of  Hawaii,  the 
largest  of  the  group,  has  been  estimated  by  the  Hawaiian  Surveyor 
General  as  containing  3,600  cubic  miles  of  lava  rock  above  sea-level. 
Taking  the  area  of  England  at  50,000  square  miles,  this  mass  of 
volcanic  matter  would  cover  that  entire  country  to  a  depth  of  274 
feet.  We  must  remember,  however,  that  what  is  above  sea-level  is 
only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  amount,  since  it  sweeps  down 
below  the  waves  hundreds  of  miles  on  every  side. 

CRATER    OF    HALEAKALA 

Of  the  lava  openings  on  these  islands,  the  extinct  one  of 
Haleakala,  as  stated,  with  its  twenty-seven  miles  circumference,  is 
far  the  most  stupendous.  It  is  easy  of  access,  the  mountain  sides 
leading  to  it  presenting  a  gentle  slope  ;  while  the  walls  of  the  crater, 
in  places  perpendicular,  in  others  are  so  sloping  that  man  and  horse 
can  descend  them.  The  pit  varies  from  1500  to  2000  feet  in  depth, 
its  bottom  being  very  irregular  from  the  old  lava  flows  and  the 
many  cinder  cones,  these  still  looking  as  fresh  as  though  their  fires 
had  just  gone  out.  Some  of  these  cones  are  over  500  feet  high. 
There  is  a  tradition  among  the  natives  that  the  vast  lava  streams 
which  in  the  past  flowed  from  the  crater  to  the  sea  continued  to 
do  so  in  the  period  of  their  remote  ancestors.  They  still,  indeed, 
appear  as  if  recent,  though  there  kre  to-day  no  signs  of  volcanic 
activity  anywhere  on  this  island. 

In  fact,  the  only  volcano  now  active  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
is  Mauna  Loa,  in  the  southern  section  of  the  Island  of  Hawaii.  A 
striking  feature  of  this  is  that  it  has  two  distinct  and  widely  discon- 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  307 

nected  craters,  one  on  its  summit,  the  other  on  its  flank,  at  a  much 
lower  level.  The  latter  is  the  vast  crater  of  Kilauea,  the  largest 
active  crater  known  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

MISS    BIRD    IN    THE    CRATER    OF    KILAUEA 

We  cannot  offer  a  better  description  of  the  aspect  of  this 
lava  abyss  than  to  give  Miss  Bird's  eloquent  description  of  her 
adventurous  descent  into  it : 

■  "  The  abyss,  which  really  is  at  a  height  of  four  thousand  feet 
on  the  flank  of  Mauna  Loa,  has  the  appearance  of  a  pit  on  a  roll- 
ing plain.  But  such  a  pit  !  It  is  quite  nine  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  at  its  lowest  area — which  not  long  ago  fell  about  three 
hundred  feet,  just  as  the  ice  on  a  pond  falls  when  the  water  below 
is  withdrawn — covers  six  square  miles.  The  depth  of  the  crater 
varies  from  eieht  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet,  accordinsj  as  the 
molten  sea  below  is  at  flood  or  ebb.  Signs  of  volcanic  activity  are 
present  more  or  less  throughout  its  whole  depth  and  for  some  dis- 
tance along  its  margin,  in  the  form  of  steam-cracks,  jets  of  sul- 
phurous vapor,  blowing  cones,  accumulating  deposits  of  acicular 
crystals  of  sulphur,  etc.,  and  the  pit  itself  is  constantly  rent  and 
shaken  by  earthquakes.  Great  eruptions  occur  with  circumstances 
of  indescribable  terror  and  dignity  ;  but  Kilauea  does  not  limit  its 
activity  to  these  outbursts,  but  has  exhibited  its  marvellous  phe- 
nomena through  all  known  time  in  a  lake  or  lakes  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  crater  three  miles  from  this  side. 

"This  lake — the  Hale-niau-7nmi,  or  "House  of  Everlasting 
Fire",  of  the  Hawaiian  mythology,  the  abode  of  the  dreaded  god- 
dess Pele — is  approachable  with  safety,  except  during  an  eruption. 
The  spectacle,  however,  varies  almost  daily  ;  and  at  times  the  level 
of  the  lava  in  the  pit  within  a  pit   is  so  low,  and   the  suffocating 


3oS  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

gases  are  evolved  in  such  enormous  quantities,  that  travellers  are 
unable  to  see  anything. 

"At  the  time  of  our  visit  there  had  been  no  news  from  it  for 
a  week  ;  and  as  nothing  was  to  be  seen  but  a  very  faint  bluish  vapor 
hanging  round  its  margin,  the  prospect  was  not  encouraging.  After 
more  than  an  hour  of  very  difficult  climbing,  we  reached  the  lowest 
level  of  the  crater,  pretty  ne^arly  a  mile  across,  presenting  from 
above  the  appearance  of  a  sea  at  rest ;  but  on  crossing  it,  we  found 
it  to  be  an  expanse  of  waves  and  convolutions  of  ashy-colored  lava, 
with  huge  cracks  filled  up  with  black  iridescent  rolls  of  lava  only  a 
few  weeks  old.  Parts  of  it  are  very  rough  and  ridgy,  jammed 
together  like  field-ice,  or  compacted  by  rolls  of  lava,  which  may 
have  swelled  up  from  beneath  ;  but  the  largest  part  of  the  area 
presents  the  appearance  of  huge  coiled  hawsers,  the  ropy  forma- 
tion of  the  lava  rendering  the  illusion  almost  perfect.  These  are 
riven  by  deep  cracks,  which  emit  hot  sulphurous  vapors. 

"  As  we  ascended,  the  flow  became  hotter  under  our  feet,  as 
well  as  more  porous  and  glistening.  It  was  so  hot  that  a  shower 
of  rain  hissed  as  it  fell  upon  it.  The  crust  became  increasingly 
insecure,  and  necessitated  our  walking  in  single  file  with  the  guide 
in  front,  to  test  the  security  of  the  footing.  I  fell  through  several 
times,  and  always  into  holes  full  of  sulphurous  steam  so  malignantly 
acid  that  my  strong  dogskin  gloves  were  burned  through  as  I  raised 
myself  on  my  hands. 

"We  had  followed  the  lava-flow  for  thirty  miles  up  to  the 
crater's  brink,  and  now  we  had  toiled  over  recent  lava  for  three 
hours,  and,  by  all  calculations,  were  close  to  the  pit ;  yet  there  was 
no  smoke  or  sign  of  fire,  and  I  felt  sure  that  the  volcano  had  died 
out  for  once  for  my  special  disappointment. 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 


309 


"  Suddenly,  just  above  and  in  front  of  us,  gory  drops  were 
tossed  In  the  air,  and  springing  forwards,  we  stood  on  the  brink  of 
Hale-mau-mau,  which  was  about  thirty-five  feet  below  us.  I  think 
we  all  screamed.  I  know  we  all  wept ;  but  we  were  speechless,  for 
a  new  glory  and  terror  had  been  added  to  the  earth.  It  is  the  most 
unutterable  of  wonderful  things.  The  words  of  common  speech 
are   quite   useless.      It  is   unimaginable,   indescribable;  a  sight  to 


CRATER  OF  KILAUEA,  HAWAII 

Fiery  Lake  of  Molten  Lava 


remember  forever ;  a  sight  which  at  once  took  possession  of  every 
faculty  of  sense  and  soul,  removing  one  altogether  out  of  the  range 
of  ordinary  life.  Here  was  the  real  'bottomless  pit',  'the  fire  which 
is  not  quenched',  'the  place  of  Hell', 'the  lake  which  burneth 
with  fire  and  brimstone',  'the  everlasting  burnings',  'the  fiery 
sea  whose  waves  are  never  weary'.  Perhaps  those  Scripture 
phrases  were  suggested  by  the  sight  of  some  volcano  in  eruption. 


3IO  '  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

There  were  groanings,  rumblings,  and  detonations  ;  rushings,  hiss- 
ings, splashings,  and  the  crashing  sound  of  breakers  on  the  coast  ; 
but  it  was  the  surging  of  fiery  waves  upon  a  fiery  shore.  But  what 
can  I  write  ?  Such  words  as  jets,  fountains,  waves,  spray,  convey 
some  idea  of  order  and  regularity,  but  here  there  are  none. 

"  The  inner  lake,  while  we  stood  there,  formed  a  sort  of  crater 
within  itself  ;  the  whole  lava  sea  rose  about  three  feet ;  a  blowing 
cone  about  eight  feet  high  was  formed  ;  it  was  never  the  same  two 
minutes  together.  And  what  we  saw  had  no  existence  a  month 
before,  and  probably  will  be  changed  in  every  essential  feature  a 
month  from  hence.  The  prominent  object  was  fire  in  motion  ;  but 
the  surface  of  the  double  lake  was  continually  skimming  over  for  a 
second  or  two  with  a  cool  crust  of  lustrous  grey-white,  like  frost- 
silver,  broken  by  jagged  cracks  of  a  bright  rose-color.  The  move- 
ment was  nearly  always  from  the  sides  to  the  centre ;  but  the 
movement  of  the  centre  itself  appeared  independent,  and  always 
took  a  southerly  direction.  Before  each  outburst  of  agitation 
there  was  much  hissing  and  throbbing,  with  internal  roaring  as  of 
imprisoned  gases.  Now  it  seemed  furious,  demoniacal,  as  if  no 
power  on  earth  could  bind  it,  then  playful  and  sportive  ;  then  for  a 
second  languid,  but  only  because  it  was  accumulating  fresh  force. 
Sometimes  the  whole  lake  took  the  form  of  mighty  waves,  and, 
surging  heavily  against  the  partial  barrier  with  a  sound  like  the 
Pacific  surf,  lashed,  tore,  covered  it,  and  threw  itself  over  it  in 
clots  of  living  fire.  It  was  all  confusion,  commotion,  forces,  terror, 
glory,  majesty,  mystery,  and  even  beauty.  And  the  color,  '  eye 
hath  not  seen'  it  !  Molten  metal  hath  not  that  crimson  gleam,  nor 
■  blood  that  living  light," 

To  this  description  we  may  add  that  of  Mr,  Ellis,  a  former 
missionary   to   these   islands,  and   one  of    the   number  who   have 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  311 

descended  to  the  shores  of   Kilauea's  abyss  of  fire.      He  says,  after 
describing  his  difficult  descent  and  progress  over  the  lava-strewn  pit : 

MR.    ELLIS    VISITS    THE    LAKE    OF    LAVA 

"  Immediately  before  us  yawned  an  immense  gulf,  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent,  about  two  miles  in  length,  from  northeast  to  south- 
west ;  nearly  a  mile  in  width,  and  apparently  800  feet  deep.  The 
bottom  was  covered  with  lava,  and  the  southwestern  and  northern 
parts  of  it  were  one  vast  flood  of  burning  matter  in  a  state  of  ter- 
rific ebullition,  rolling  to  and  fro  its  '  fiery  surges '  and  flaming 
billows.  Fifty-one  conical  islands,  of  varied  form  and  size,  con- 
taining as  many  craters,  rose  either  round  the  edge  or  from  the 
surface  of  the  burning  lake  ;  twenty-two  constantly  emitted  columns 
of  gray  smoke  or  pyramids  of  brilliant  flame,  and  several  of  these 
at  the  same  time  vomited  from  their  ignited  mouths  streams  of 
lava,  which  rolled  in  blazing  torrents  down  their  black  indented 
sides  into  the  boiling  mass  below. 

"  The  existence  of  these  conical  craters  led  us  to  conclude 
that  the  boiling  cauldron  of  lava  before  us  did  not  form  the  focus  of 
the  volcano  ;  that  this  mass  of  melted  lava  was  comparatively  shal- 
low, and  that  the  basin  in  which  it  was  contained  was  separated  by 
a  stratum  of  solid  matter  from  the  great  volcanic  abyss,  which  con- 
stantly poured  out  its  melted  contents  through  these  numerous 
craters  into  this  upper  reservoir.  The  sides  of  the  gulf  before  us, 
although  composed  of  different  strata  of  ancient  lava,  were  per- 
pendicular for  about  400  feet,  and  rose  from  a  wide  horizontal 
ledge  of  solid  black  lava  of  irregular  breadth,  but  extending  com- 
pletely round.  Beneath  this  ledge  the  sides  sloped  gradually  towards 
the  burning  lake,  which  was,  as  nearly  as  we  could  judge,  300  or 
400  feet  lower. 


o 


12  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 


"  It  was  evident  that  the  large  crater  had  been  recently  filled 
with  liquid  lava  up  to  this  black  ledge,  and  had,  by  some  subterra- 
neous canal,  emptied  itself  into  the  sea  or  spread  under  the  low  land 
on  the  shore.  The  gray  and  in  some  places  apparently  calcined  sides 
of  the  great  crater  before  us,  the  fissures  which  intersected  the 
surface  of  the  plain  on  which  we  were  standing,  the  long  banks  of 
sulphur  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  abyss,  the  vigorous  action  of 
the  numerous  small  craters  on  its  borders,  the  dense  columns  of 
vapor  and  smoke  that  rose  at  the  north  and  west  end  of  the  plain, 
together  with  the  ridge  of  steep  rocks  by  which  it  was  surrounded, 
rising  probably  in  some  places  300  or  400  feet  in  perpendicular 
height,  presented  an  immense  volcanic  panorama,  the  effect  of 
which  was  greatly  augmented  by  the  constant  roaring  of  the  vast 
furnaces  below." 

MAUNA    LOA    IN     ERUPTION 

Of  the  two  great  craters  of  Mauna  Loa,  the  summit  one  has 
frequently  in  modern  times  overflowed  its  crest  and  poured  its 
molten  streams  in  glowing  rivers  over  the  land.  This  has  rarely 
been  the  case  with  the  lower  and  incessantly  active  crater  of  Kilauea, 
whose  lava,  when  in  excess,  appears  to  escape  by  subterranean 
channels  to  the  sea.  We  append  descriptions  of  some  of  the  more 
recent  examples  of  Mauna  Loa's  eruptive  energy.  The  lava  from 
this  crater  does  not  alone  flow  over  the  crater's  lip,  but  at  times 
makes  its  way  through  fissures  far  below,  the  immense  pressure 
causing  it  to  spout  in  great  flashing  fountains  high  into  the  air.  In 
1852  the  fiery  fountains  reached  a  height  of  500  feet.  In  some 
later  eruptions  they  have  leaped  1,000  feet  high.  The  lava  is 
white  hot  as  it  ascends,  but  it  assumes  a  blood-red  tint  in  its  fall, 
and. strikes  the  ground  with  a  frightful  noise. 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  313 

The  quantities  of  lava  ejected  in  some  of  the  recent  eruptions 
have  been  enormous.  The  river-hke  flow  of  1855  was  remarkable 
for  its  extent,  being  from  two  to  eight  miles  wide,  with  a  depth  of 
from  three  to  three  hundred  feet,  and  extendino-  in  a  winding  course 
for  a  distance  of  sixty  miles.  The  Apostle  of  Hawaiian  volcanoes, 
the  Rev.  Titus  Coan,  who  ventured  to  the  source  of  this  flow  while 
it  was  in  supreme  action,  thus  describes  it  : — 

"  We  ascended  our  rugged  pathway  amidst  steam  and  smoke  and 
heat  which  almost  blinded  and  scathed  us.  We  came  to  open 
orifices  down  which  we  looked  into  the  fiery  river  which  rushed 
madly  under  our  feet.  These  fiery  vents  were  frequent,  some  of 
them  measuring  ten,  twenty,  fifty  or  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter. 
In  one  place  we  saw  the  river  of  lava  uncovered  for  thirty  rods  and 
rushing  down  a  declivity  of  from  ten  to  twenty-five  degrees.  The 
scene  was  awful,  the  momentum  incredible,  the  fusion  perfect  (white 
heat),  and  the  velocity  forty  miles  an  hour.  The  banks  on  each 
side  of  the  stream  were  red-hot,  jagged  and  overhanging.  As  we 
viewed  it  rushing  out  from  under  its  ebon  counterpane,  and  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye  diving  again  into  its  fiery  den,  it  seemed  to  say, 
'Standoff!  Scan  me  not!  I  am  God's  messenger.  A  work  to 
do.     Away !'  " 

Later  he  wrote  again  : — "  The  great  summit  fountain  is  still 
playing  with  fearful  energy,  and  the  devouring  stream  rushes 
madly  down  toward  us.  It  is  now  about  ten  miles  distant,  and 
heading  directly  for  our  bay.  In  a  few  days  we  may  be  called  to 
announce  the  painful  fact  that  our  beauteous  Hilo  is  no  more, — 
that  our  lovely,  our  inimitable  landscape,  our  emerald  bowers,  our 
crescent  strand  and  our  silver  bay  are  blotted  out.  A  fiery  sword 
hangs  over  us.  A  flood  of  burning  ruin  approaches  us.  Devour- 
ing fires  are  near  us.     With  sure  and  solemn  progress  the  glowing 


314  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

fusion  advances  through  the  dark  forest  and  the  dense  jungle  in 
our  rear,  cutting  down  ancient  trees  of  enormous  growth  and 
sweeping  away  all  vegetable  life.  For  months  the  great  summit 
furnace  on  Mauna  Loa  has  been  in  awful  blast.  Floods  of  burn- 
ing destruction  have  swept  wildly  and  widely  over  the  top  and 
down  the  sides  of  the  mountain.  The  wrathful  stream  has  over- 
come every  obstacle,  winding  its  fiery  way  from  its  high  source  to 
the  bases  of  the  everlasting  hills,  spreading  in  a  molten  sea  over 
the  plains,  penetrating  the  ancient  forests,  driving  the  bellowing 
herds,  the  wild  goats  and  the  affrighted  birds  before  its  lurid 
glare,  leaving  nothing  but  ebon  blackness  and  smoldering  ruin  in 
its  track." 

His  anticipation  of  the  burial  of  Hilo  under  the  mighty  flow 
was  happily  not  realized.  It  came  to  an  abrupt  halt  while  seven 
miles  distant,  the  checked  stream  standing  in  a  threatening  and 
rugged  ridge,  with  rigid,  beetling  front. 

THE  ERUPTIONS  OF  1859  AND  1865 

In  January,  1859,  Mauna  Loa  was  again  at  its  fire-play,  throw- 
ing up  lava  fountains  from  800  to  1,000  feet  in  height.  From  this 
great  fiery  fountain  the  lava  flowed  down  in  numerous  streams, 
spreading  over  a  width  of  five  or  six  miles.  One  stream,  probably 
formed  by  the  junction  of  several  smaller,  attained  a  height  of  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  about  an  eighth  of  a 
mile.  Great  stones  were  thrown  up  along  with  the  jet  of  lava,  and 
the  volume  of  seeming  smoke,  composed  probably  of  fine  volcanic 
dust,  is  said  to  have  risen  to  the  height  of  10,000  feet. 

An  eruption  of  still  greater  violence  took  place  in  1865,  charac- 
terized by  similar  phenomena,  particularly  the  throwing  up  of  jets 
of  lava.     This  fiery  fountain  continued  to  play  without  intermission 


WONDERFUL   HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  315 

for  twenty  days  and  nights,  varying  only  as  respects  the  height  to 
which  the  jet  arose,  which  is  said  to  have  ranged  between  100  and 
1,000  feet,  the  mean  diameter  of  the  jet  being  about  100  feet. 
This  eruption  was  accompanied  by  explosions  so  loud  as  to  have 
been  heard  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles. 

A  cone  of  about  300  feet  in  height,  and  about  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference, was  accumulated  round  the  orifice  whence  the  jet  ascended. 
It  was  composed  of  solid  matters  ejected  with  the  lava,  and  it  con- 
tinued to  glow  like  a  furnace,  notwithstanding  its  exposure  to  the 
air.  The  current  of  lava  on  this  occasion  flowed  to  a  distance  of 
thirty-five  miles,  burning  its  way  through  the  forests,  and  filling  the 
air  with  smoke  and  flames  from  the  ignited  timber.  The  glare 
from  the  ^lowinor  lava  and  the  burning;  trees  too^ether  was  dis- 
cernible  by  night  at  a  distance  of  200  miles  from  the  island. 

THE    LAVA    FLOW    OF     1880 

A  succeeding  great  lava  flow  was  that  which  began  on  Novem- 
ber 6,  1880.  Mr.  David  Hitchcock,  who  was  camping  on  Mauna 
Kea  at  the  time  of  this  outbreak,  saw  a  spectacle  that  few  human 
eyes  have  ever  beheld.  "We  stood,"  writes  he,  "on  the  very  edge 
of  that  flowing  river  of  rock.  Oh,  what  a  sight  it  was !  Not  twenty 
feet  from  us  was  this  immense  bed  of  rock  slowly  moving  forward 
with  irresistible  force,  bearino-  on  its  surface  hugre  rocks  and  immense 
boulders  of  tons'  weight  as  water  would  carry  a  toy-boat.  The 
whole  front  edge  was  one  bright  red  mass  of  solid  rock  incessantly 
breakinor  off  from  the  toweringr  mass  and  rollinor  down  to  the  foot 
of  it,  to  be  again  covered  by  another  avalanche  of  white-hot  rocks 
and  sand.  The  whole  mass  at  its  front  edge  was  from  twelve  to 
thirty  feet  in  height.  Along  the  entire  line  of  its  advance  it  was 
one  crash  of  rolling,  sliding,  turnbling  red-hot  rock.    We  could  hear 


3i6  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

no  explosions  while  we  were  near  the  flow,  only  a  tremendous  roar- 
ing like  ten  thousand  blast  furnaces  all  at  work  at  once." 

This  was  the  most  extensive  flow  of  recent  years,  and  its  pro- 
gress from  the  interior  plain  through  the  dense  forests  above  Hilo 
and  out  on  to  the  open  levels  close  to  the  town  was  startling  and 
menacing  enough.  Through  the  woods  especially  it  was  a  turbu- 
lent, seethine  mass  that  hurled  down  mammoth  trees,  and  licked 
up  streams  of  water,  and  day  and  night  kept  up  an  unintermitting- 
cannonade  of  explosions.  The  steam  and  imprisoned  gases  would 
burst  the  coneealincr  surface  with  loud  detonations  that  could  be 
heard  for  many  miles.  It  was  not  an  infrequent  thing  for  parties 
to  camp  out  close  to  the  flow  over  night.  Ordinarily  a  lava-flow 
moves  sluggishly  and  congeals  rapidly,  so  that  what  seems  like 
hardihood  in  the  narrating  is  in  reality  calm  judgment,  for  it  is  per- 
fectly safe  to  be  in  the  close  vicinity  of  a  lava-stream,  and  even  to 
walk  on  its  surface  as  soon  as  one  would  be  inclined  to  walk  on 
cooling  iron  in  a  foundry.  This  notable  flow  finally  ceased  within 
half  a  mile  of  Hilo,  where  its  black  form  is  a  perpetual  reminder  of 
a  marvellous  deliverance  from  destruction. 

KILAUEA    IN     1840 

Kilauea  seems  never,  in  historic  times,  to  have  filled  and  over- 
flowed its  vast  crater.  To  do  so  would  need  an  almost  inconceiv- 
able volume  of  liquid  rock  material.  But  it  approached  this  cul- 
mination in  1840,  when  it  became,  through  its  whole  extent,  a  raging 
sea  of  fire.  The  boiling  lava  rose  in  the  mighty  mountain-cup  to  a 
height  of  from  500  to  600  feet.  Then  it  forced  a  passage  through 
a  subterranean  cavity  twenty-seven  miles  long,  and  reached  the  sea, 
forty  miles  distant,  in  two  days.  The  stream  where  it  fell  into  the  sea 
was  half  a  mile  wide,  and  the  flow  kept  up  for  three  weeks,  heating 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  317 

the  ocean  twenty  miles  from  land.      An  eye-witness  of  this  extraor- 
dinary flow  thus  describes  it : 

"  When  the  torrent  of  fire  precipitated  itself  into  the  ocean, 
the  scene  assumed  a  character  of  terrific  and  indescribable  ofrandeur. 
•The  magnificence  of  destruction  was  never  more  perceptibly  dis- 
played than  when  these  antagonistic  elements  met  in  deadly  strife. 
The  mightiest  of  earth's  magazines  of  fire  poured  forth  its  burning 
billows  to  meet  the  mis^htiest  of  oceans.  For  two  score  miles  it 
came  rolling,  tumbling,  swelling  forward,  an  awful  agent  of  death. 
Rocks  melted  like  wax  in  its  path  ;  forests  crackled  and  blazed 
before  its  fervent  heat ;  the  works  of  man  were  to  it  but  as  a  scroll 
in  the  flames.  Imagine  Niagara's  stream,  above  the  brink  of  the 
Falls,  with  its  dashing,  whirling,  madly-raging  waters  hurrying  on 
to  their  plunge,  instantaneously  converted  into  fire  ;  a  gory-hued 
river  of  fused  minerals ;  volumes  of  hissing  steam  arising ;  some 
curling  upward  from  ten  thousand  vents,  which  give  utterance  to 
as  many  deep-toned  mutterings,  and  sullen,  confined  clamiorings  ; 
gases  detonating  and  shrieking  as  they  burst  from  their  hot  prison- 
house  ;  the  heavens  lurid  with  flame ;  the  atmosphere  dark  and 
oppressive  ;  the  horizon  murky  with  vapors  and  gleaming  with  the 
reflected  contest ! 

"  Such  was  the  scene  as  the  fiery  cataract,  leaping  a  precipice 
of  fifty  feet,  poured  its  flood  upon  the  ocean.  The  old  line  of 
coast,  a  mass  of  compact,  indurated  lava,  whitened,  cracked  and 
fell.  The  waters  recoiled,  and  sent  forth  a  tempest  of  spray  •,  they 
foamed  and  dashed  around  and  over  the  melted  rock,  they  boiled 
with  the  heat,  and  the  roar  of  the  conflicting  agencies  grew  fiercer 
and  louder.  The  reports  of  the  exploding  gases  were  distinctly 
heard  twenty-five  miles  distant,  and  were  likened  to  a  whole  broad- 
side of  heavy  artillery.     Streaks  of  the  intensest  light  glanced  like 


3i8  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

lightning  in  all  directions  ;  the  outskirts  of  the  burning  lava  as  it 
fell,  cooled  by  the  shock,  were  shivered  into  millions  of  fragments, 
and  scattered  by  the  strong  wind  in  sparkling  showers  far  into  the 
country.  For  three  successive  weeks  the  volcano  disgorged  an 
uninterrupted  burning  tide,  with  scarcely  any  diminution,  into  the 
ocean.  On  either  side,  for  twenty  miles,  the  sea  became  heated, 
with  such  rapidity  that,  on  the  second  day  of  the  junction  of  the 
lava  with  the  ocean,  fishes  came  ashore  dead  in  great  numbers,  at  a 
point  fifteen  miles  distant.  Six  weeks  later,  at  the  base  of  the  hills, 
the  water  continued  scalding  hot,  and  sent  forth  steam  at  every 
wash  of  the  waves." 

THE    SINKING    OF    KILAUEa's    FIRE-LAKE 

In  1866  the  great  crater  of  Kilauea  presented  a  new  and  un- 
looked-for spectacle  in  the  sinking  and  vanishing  of  its  great  lava 
lake.  In  March  of  that  year  the  fires  in  the  ancient  cauldron 
totally  disappeared,  and  the  surrounding  lava  rock  sank  to  a  depth 
of  nearly  600  feet.  Mr.  Thrum,  in  a  pamphlet  on  "The  Sus- 
pended Activity  of   Kilauea,"  says  of  it  : 

"  Distant  rumbling  noises  were  heard,  accompanied  by  a  series 
of  earthquakes,  forty-three  in  number.  With  the  fourth  shock  the 
brilliancy  of  New  Lake  disappeared,  and  towards  3  a,  m.  the  fires 
in  Halemaumau  disappeared  also,  leaving  the  whole  crater  in  dark- 
ness. 

"  With  the  dawn  the  shocks  and  noises  ceased,  and  revealed  the 
changes  which  Kilauea  had  underofone  in  the  ni^ht.  All  the  hig^h 
cliffs  surrounding  Halemaumau  and  New  Lake,  which  had  become 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  crater,  had  vanished  entirely,  and  the 
molten  lava  of  both  lakes  had  disappeared  by  some  subterranean 
passage  from  the  bottom  of  Halemaumau.     There  was  no  material 


WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS  319 

change  in  the  sunken  portion  of  the  crater  except  a  continual  falHng 
in  of  rocks  and  debris  from  its  banks  as  the  contraction  from  its 
former  intense  heat  loosened  their  compactness  and  sent  them 
hurling  some  200  or  300  feet  below,  giving  forth  at  times  a  boom 
as  of  distant  thunder,  followed  by  clouds  of  cinders  and  ashes 
shooting  up  into  the  air  100  to  300  feet,  proportionate,  doubtless, 
to  the  size  of  the  newly  fallen  mass." 

This  remarkable  recession  of  the  liquid  lava  in  Halemaumau 
was  probably  due  to  the  opening  of  some  deep  subterranean  pass- 
age through  which  the  lake  of  lava  made  its  way  unseen  to  the 
ocean's  depths.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Baker,  probably  the  most  adven- 
turesome explorer  of  Hawaiian  volcanoes,  actually  descended  into 
that  crumbling  pit  to  a  point  within  what  he  judged  to  be  fifty  feet 
of  the  bottom.  But  Halemaumau  had  only  taken  an  intermission, 
for  in  two  short  months  signs  of  returning  life  became  frequent 
and  unmistakable,  and,  in  June,  culminated  in  the  sudden  outbreak 
of  a  lake  that  has  since  then  steadily  increased  in  activity. 

THE    GODDESS    PELE 

We  cannot  close  this  chapter  without  some  reference  to  the 
Goddess  Pele,  to  whom  the  Hawaiians  long  imputed  the  wonder- 
work of  their  volcanic  mountains.  When  there  is  unusual  com- 
motion in  Kilauea  myriads  of  thread-like  filaments  float  in  the  air 
and  fall  upon  the  cliffs,  making  deposits  much  resembling  matted 
hair.  A  single  filament  over  fifteen  inches  long  was  picked  up  on 
a  Hilo  veranda,  having  sailed  in  the  air  a  distance  of  fifty  miles. 
This  is  the  famous  Pele's  Hair,  being  the  glass-like  product  of 
volcanic  fires.  It  resembles  Prince  Rupert's  Drops,  and  the  tradi- 
tion is  that  whenever  the  volcano  becomes  active  it  is  because  Pele, 
the  Goddess  of  the  crater,  emerges  from  her  fiery  furnace  and  shakes 
her  vitreous  locks  in  anger. 


320  WONDERFUL  HAWAIIAN  CRATERS 

This  fabled  being,  according  to  Emerson,  in  a  paper  on  "The 
Lesser  Hawaiian  Gods,"  "could  at  times  assume  the  appearance  of 
a  handsome  young  woman,  as  when  Kamapuaa,  to  his  cost,  was 
smitten  with  her  charms  when  first  he  saw  her  with  her  sisters  at 
Kilauea."  Kamapauaa  was  a  gigantic  hog,  who  "could  appear  as 
a  handsome  young  man,  a  hog,  a  fish  or  a  tree."  "At  other  times 
the  innate  character  of  the  fury  showed  itself,  and  Pele  appeared 
in  her  usual  form  as  an  ugly  and  hateful  old  hag,  with  tattered  and 
fire-burnt  garments,  scarcely  concealing  the  filth  and  nakedness  of 
her  person.  Her  bloodshot  eyes  and  fiendish  countenance  para- 
lized  the  beholder,  and  her  touch  turned  him  to  stone.  She  was  a 
jealous  and  vindictive  monster,  delighting  in  cruelty,  and  at  the 
slightest  provocation  overwhelming  the  unoffending  victims  of  her 
rage  in  widespread  ruin." 

The  superstition  regarding  the  Goddess  Pele  was  thought  to 
have  received  a  death  blow  in  1825,  when  Kapiolani,  an  Hawaiian 
princess  and  a  Christian  convert,  ascended,  with  numerous  attend- 
ants, to  the  crater  of  Kilauea,  where  she  publicly  defied  the  power 
and  wrath  of  the  goddess.  No  response  came  to  her  defiance,  she 
descended  in  safety,  and  faith  in  Pele's  power  was  widely  shaken. 

Yet  as  late  as  1887  the  old  superstition  revived  and  claimed 
an  exalted  victim,  for  in  that  year  the  Princess  Like  Like,  the 
youngest  sister  of  the  king,  starved  herself  to  death  to  appease 
the  anger  of  the  Goddess  Pele,  supposed  to  be  manifested  in 
Mauna  Loa's  eruption  of  that  year,  and  to  be  quieted  only  by  the 
sacrifice  of  a  victim  of  royal  blood.  Thus  slowly  do  the  old  super- 
stitions die  away. 


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CHAPTER  XXL 

Volcanoes  of  South  America  and  the  West 

African  Islands. 

SOUTH  AMERICA  is  famous  for  the  great  number  and  vast 
size  of  its  volcanoes,  mainly  found  in  the  mighty  range  of  the 
Andes.  Among  these  the  most  remarkable  are  Cotopaxi, 
Tunguragua,  Pichincha,  Antisana,  and  Sangay.  Of  these  Coto- 
paxi is  not  only  the  loftiest  volcano  in  South  America,  but  in  the 
world,  its  elevation,  according  to  Whymper,  being  19,550  feet.  It 
presents  a  cone  of  remarkable  regularity,  its  summit,  which  is  uni- 
formly covered  with  perpetual  snow,  looking  almost  as  if  turned  in 
a  lathe.  Below  the  sharply-defined  snow-line  woodland  extends  to 
its  base.  Though  eruptions  are  rare,  a  column  of  vapor  continu- 
ally ascends  from  its  lofty  peak. 

If  we  can  accept  the  traditions  of  the  natives,  this  mountain 
could  not  always  claim  its  proud  pre-eminence  in  height,  since  they 
state  that  the  mountain  called  Capac-Urcu  was  once  still  higher 
than  Cotopaxi,  or  even  than  Chimborazo,  with  its  20,100  feet. 
They  tell  us  that,  not  long  before  the  discovery  of  America  by  the 
Spaniards,  there  took  place  a  series  of  dreadful  eruptions,  which 
lasted  eight  years,  during  which  the  cone  of  Capac-Urcu  was 
broken  down,  and  that  its  fragments  now  lie  scattered  over  the 
adjacent  plains.  Similar  occurrences  elsewhere  render  this  tradi- 
tion by  no  means  improbable. 

21  321 


322  VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Most  picturesque  among  the  volcanoes  of  the  Andes  is  Pichin- 
cha,  which  is  15,800  feet  high  and  consists  of  several  cones,  of  which 
four  are  conspicuous — the  most  southerly,  named  Raus,  being  that 
which  contains  the  active  crater.  It  is  on  a  plain  formed  on  the 
flanks  of  this  mountain  that  Quito  is  situated  ;  and  to  this  danp-er- 
ous  neighborhood  that  beautiful  city  doubtless  owed  its  overthrow 
in  1849  by  ^  destructive  earthquake.  Baron  Humboldt  ascended 
to  the  crater  of  Pichincha,  and  nearly  lost  his  life  in  the  adventure. 
Having  approached  the  edge,  in  order  to  obtain  a  view  of  the  lava 
boiling  at  the  bottom  of  the  abyss,  he  became  enveloped  in  a  dense 
fog,  and  nearly  stepped  upon  the  steep  incline,  which  descends  so 
rapidly  that,  had  he  once  planted  his  foot  on  it,  he  would  have  slid 
into  the  glowing  lake  of  fire  beneath. 

Small  volcanoes  are  usually  the  most  active,  and  the  great 
height  of  those  in  the  Andes  has  probably  much  to  do  with  the 
infrequency  of  their  eruptions,  though  this  rtde  does  not  always 
hold  good, 

ERUPTIONS    OF    MUD 

The  eruptions  from  the  South  American  volcanoes  are  quite 
as  frequently  of  sulphurous  mud  as  of  lava.  An  eruption  from 
Imbaburu  in  1691,  of  which  we  have  previously  spoken,  was  of  this 
character,  the  mud  bringing  with  it  so  great  a  quantity  of  small  fish 
as  to  cause  a  fever  from  their  pestilential  effluvia.  In  June,  1698, 
a  similar  event  took  place  at  Carguairazo,  whose  cone  fell  in,  and 
a  great  eruption  of  mud  succeeded,  in  which  also  were  dead  fish. 

This  peculiar  fact  was  repeated  in  1 799  during  an  eruption  of 
Tunguragua,  which  accompanied  the  terrible  earthquake  by  which 
the  city  of  Riobamba  was  destroyed.  During  the  earthquake 
shocks  the  crater  gave  off  less  vapor  than  usual,  but  enormous 
fissures   opened   at    its  base,  whence   issued   immense  volumes  of 


VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  323 

water  and  fetid  mud,  which  overflowed  the  country  around  to  a 
wide  extent.  In  some  of  the  neighboring  valleys,  1,000  feet  wide, 
the  water  rose  to  a  height  of  600  feet.  In  the  hollows  the  mud 
accumulated  in  such  masses  as  to  check  the  flow  of  the  rivers,  which 
rose  so  as  to  form  large  lakes,  these  remaining  for  more  than  eighty 
days.  The  floods  contained  immense  quantities  of  fish  of  a 
peculiar  species,  suggesting  that  the  water  may  have  come  from 
subterranean  lakes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  volcano.  The  mud  was 
probably  composed  of  sulphurous  dust  and  ashes  from  the  volcano. 
The  materials  emitted  from  these  volcanoes,  however,  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  mud,  Antisana,  for  instance,  being  notable  for 
the  large  streams  of  lava  which  it  has  poured  forth.  This  moun- 
tain had  frequent  fits  of  activity  between  1590  and  1718,  since 
which  time  it  has  been  quiet.  At  the  height  of  about  13.600  feet 
above  the  sea-level  is  a  plain,  formerly  the  bed  of  a  considerable 
lake,  now  reduced  to  very  narrow  limits,  From  the  centre  of  this 
plain  rises  the  snow-clad  summit,  containing  a  dome-like  portion, 
connected  by  a  group  of  jagged  peaks  with  a  truncated  cone  of 
eruption  situated  on  the  north  side.  The  ejected  lavas  have  formed 
numerous  walls  of  basalt  at  the  foot  of  the  m.ountain,  and  there 
are  also  great  beds  of  very  spongy  pumice. 

SANGAY    IN    INCESSANT    ACTIVITY 

Sangay  is  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  small  volcanoes  being 
the  most  active.  Although  towering  to  the  height  of  upward  of 
18,000  feet,  its  activity  has  ever  since  1728  been  almost  incessant. 
Its  eruptions  are  accompanied  by  loud  detonations,  which  are  heard 
at  great  distances.  In  1842  and  1845  its  thunderings  were  heard 
at  Payta,  on  the  Peruvian  coast.  These  explosions  sometimes  suc- 
ceed each  other  with  amazing  rapidity  ;  but  so  loose  and  incoherent 


324  VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

are  the  materials  composing  the  cone  that  no  concussion  is  felt. 
The  fumes  from  the  crater  are  very  dense — sometimes  gray,  some- 
times orange,  in  color.  The  solid  substances  thrown  out  along 
with  these  fumes  are  cinders  and  dross,  occasionally  accompanied 
by  round  stones  of  about  two  feet  in  diameter.  These  either  fall 
back  again  into  the  crater,  or  alight  on  the  edge  of  the  cone,  to 
which  they  impart  an  incandescent  glow.  On  cooling,  the  ejected 
matters  become  quite  black,  so  that  they  give  the  general  surface 
of  the  cone  a  most  dismal  aspect.  They  are  accumulated  on  the 
slope  and  all  around  the  base  of  the  cone  in  beds,  some  parts  of 
which  attain  a  thickness  of  between  300  and  400  feet. 

THE    VOLCANOES    OF    CHILI 

Another  exception  to  the  general  infrequency  of  paroxysms 
of  activity  among  the  South  American  volcanoes,  is  presented  by 
Rancagua,  in  Chili,  which  is  in  a  state  of  perpetual  restlessness 
similar  to  that  of  Stromboli.  Chilian,  another  of  the  volcanoes  of 
Chili,  burst  into  action  in  November  1864,  when  there  was  formed 
a  new  crater,  whence  immense  quantities  of  ashes  and  other  loose 
matters  were  ejected,  along  with  streams  of  lava.  The  whole  sum- 
mit of  the  cone,  which  is  usually  snow-clad,  became  covered  with 
volcanic  ashes  in  a  layer  of  considerable  depth.  This  fact  illus- 
trates the  manner  in  which  layers  of  ice  and  snow  may  alternate 
with  layers  of  lava  ;  for  such  thick  coatings  of  ashes  will  prevent 
the  lava  from  melting  the  snow  to  any  considerable  extent,  and 
will  rather  facilitate  its  conversion  into  ice.  The  snow  being  first 
reduced  to  a  half-melted  state,  and  then  subjected  to  the  pressure 
of  the  lava,  regelation  ensues,  and  very  hard  and  compact  ice  is 
formed  beneath. 


VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 


325 


Coming  now  to  the  greatest  of  South  American  volcanoes,  the 
lofty  Cotopaxi,  situated  about  35  miles  from  Quito,  we  find  it 
credited  with  numerous  eruptions,  some  of  them  very  destructive. 
The  earliest  on  record  were  those  of  1532  and  1533.  In  the  latter 
year  the  mountain,  which  has  the  reputation  of  flinging  large 
stones  to  great  distances,  is  said  to  have  hurled  one  huge  mass,  of 
200  tons  weight,  to  a  distance  of  about  ten  miles.     The  eruption 


COTAPAXI, 

The  Loftiest  Volcano  on  the  Earth 


of  I  744  continued  for  three  years,  immense  streams  of  lava  spread- 
ing over  the  adjacent  plains.  The  thundering  roar  of  this  great 
outbreak  was  heard  at  Hondo,  on  the  Rio  Magdalena,  about  500 
miles  away.  Other  great  eruptions  were  in  1768  and  1803.  In  the 
latter  instance  Humboldt,  then  160  miles  distant,  heard  the  fierce 
explosions  night  and  day  like  the  continued  discharges  from  a  bat- 
tery. Eruptions  of  some  importance  were  those  of  1850,  1854, 
1856  and  1864.     A  later  one,  in  1877,  is  thus  described: 


326  VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

"First  a  great  column  of  dust  was  ejected,  followed  next  day  by 
a  second  mass,  which  drifted  hlgrh  in  the  air  above  Quito,  so  that 
midday  was  dark  as  night.  The  next  day  the  summit  of  the  vol- 
cano was  clear,  but  about  ten  o'clock  some  people  who  were  look- 
ing at  it  'saw  molten  lava  pouring  through  the  gapes  and  notches 
in  the  lip  of  the  crater,  bubbling  and  smoking,  so  they  described  it, 
like  the  froth  of  a  pot  that  suddenly  boils  oven'  After  this  what 
ensued  upon  the  mountain  no  man  could  see,  for  in  a  few  minutes 
the  whole  of  it  was  enveloped  in  smoke  and  steam,  and  became 
invisible,  '  but  out  of  the  darkness  a  moaning  noise  arose,  which 
grew  into  a  roar,  and  a  deluge  of  water — ^due  to  the  melting  snow 
— with  blocks  of  ice,  mud  and  rock,  rushed  down,  sweeping  away 
everything  that  lay  in  its  course,  and  leaving  a  desert  in  its  rear.' 
The  molten  matter,  as  Mr.  Whympcr  points  out,  which  overflowed 
from  the  crater,  and  fell  in  streams  or  cascades  upon  the  surround- 
ing slopes  of  snow  and  ice,  must  often  have  been  sent  flying  into 
the  air  in  shattered  fragments  and  splashes  by  the  sudden  develop- 
ment of  steam,  and  'portions  of  the  glaciers,  uncemented  from 
their  attachments  by  the  enormous  augmentation  of  heat,  slipped 
away  bodily,  and,  partly  rolling,  partly  borne  by  the  growing  floods, 
arrived  at  the  bottom  a  mass  of  shattered  blocks.'  The  villages 
to  a  distance  of  seventy  miles  around  were  buried  under  a  deposit 
of  mud  and  other  materials." 

MR.    WHYMPEr's    account    OF    HIS    ASCENT 

Humboldt,  in  1802,  and  several  later  travelers  attempted  to 
ascend  Cotapaxi's  icy  cone,  but  in  vain,  and  it  was  not  until  1872 
that  Dr.  Wilhelm  Reiss  succeeded  in  reaching  the  top.  Others 
have  since  accomplished  this  feat,  among  them  Mr.  Whymper, 
who  passed  a  night  on  the  cone  just  below  its  summit  and  looked 


VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  327 

into  the  crater.  He  p-ives  the  followinsf  account  of  what  he  saw: 
"An  amphitheater  2,300  feet  in  diameter  from  north  to  south, 
and  1,650  feet  across  from  east  to  west,  with  a  rugged  and  irregular 
crest,  notched  and  cracked,  surrounded  by  cHffs,  by  perpendicular  and 
even  overhanging  precipices,  mixed  with  steep  slopes  ;  some  bear- 
ing snow,  and  others  apparently  incrusted  with  sulphur.  Cavern- 
ous recesses  belched  forth  smoke  ;  the  sides  of  cracks  and  chasms, 
no  more  than  halfway  down,  shone  with  ruddy  light  ;  and  so  it 
continued  on  all  sides  right  down  to  the  bottom,  precipice  alternat- 
ing with  slope,  and  the  fiery  fissures  becoming  more  numerous  as 
the  bottom  was  approached. 

"At  the  bottom,  probably  1,200  feet  below  us,  and  towards  the 
centre,  there  was  a  rudely  circular  spot,  about  one-teath  the  diame- 
ter of  the  crater,  the  pipe  of  the  volcano,  its  channel  of  communi- 
cation with  the  lower  regions,  filled  with  incandescent,  if  not 
molten,  lava,  glowing  and  burning  ;  with  flames  traveling  to  and 
fro  over  its  surface,  and  scintillations  scattering  as  from  a  wood 
fire  ;  lighted  by  tongues  of  flickering  flame,  which  issued  from  the 
cracks  in  the  surrounding  slopes.  At  intervals  of  about  half  an 
hour  the  volcano  regularly  blew  off  steam.  It  arose  in  jets  with 
great  violence  from  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  and  boiled  over  the 
lip,  continually  enveloping  us.  The  noise  on  these  occasions 
resembled  that  which  we  hear  when  a  large  ocean  steamer  is  blowing 
off  steam," 

ANOTHER    EPISODE    OF    THE    MOUNTAIN'S    ACTIVITY 

Another  episode  in  Mr.  Whympef's  experience  illustrates  a 
milder  phase  of  the  mountain's  activity.  It  occurred  when  he  was 
making  his  second  ascent  of  Chimborazo.  The  sky  was  bright,  and 
the  cone  of  Cotopaxi,  sixty  miles  away,  stood  up  clear  in  the  dawn- 
ing light.     The  great  volcano  was  unusually  tranquil ;  not   a  sign 


328  VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

of  smoke  rose  from  its  crater.  "At  5.40  a.  m.  two  puffs  of  steam 
were  emitted,  and  then  there  was  a  pause.  At  5.45  a  coUimn  of 
inky  blackness  began  to  issue,  and  went  straight  into  the  air  with 
such  prodigious  velocity  that  in  less  than  a  minute  it  had  risen 
20,000  feet  above  the  rim  of  the  crater."  At  this  height  it  appeared 
to  be  caught  by  a  powerful  current  of  air  from  the  east,  and  was 
"  rapidly  borne  toward  the  Pacific  ;  remaining  intensely  black, 
seeming  to  spread  very  slightly "  ;  then  it  was  caught  by  another 
current  from  the  north,  and  drifted  toward  Chimborazo,  spreading 
out  rapidly.  When  the  party  reached  the  summit,  though  the  cloud 
was  then  hovering  overhead,  the  snows  were  clean  ;  but  about  ten 
minutes  afterward  the  dust  began  to  fall,  and,  in  the  course  of  an 
hour,  gave  the  white  dome  the  aspect  of  a  plowed  field.  In  Mr. 
Whymper's  words  :  "  It  filled  our  eyes  and  nostrils,  rendered  eating 
and  drinking  impossible,  and  at  last  reduced  us  to  breathing 
through  handkerchiefs.  The  dust  had  occupied  some  seven  and  a 
half  hours  on  its  aerial  journey." 

THE    FAMOUS    PEAK    OF    TENERIFFE 

Passing  from  the  line  of  the  Andes  to  that  of  the  volcanic 
islands  adjoining  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  we  find  ourselves  in  a 
region  of  some  degree  of  volcanic  activity,  though  not  equalling 
that  of  the  mountains  just  considered,  this  being,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously said,  a  region  of  declining  volcanism.  The  most  active 
vents  are  those  of  the  Canary  Islands,  the  Azores,  though  they 
have  been  much  troubled  with  earthquakes,  having  at  present  but 
one  active  crater,  that  of  El  Pico,  which  constantly  sends  off 
vapors. 

The  volcanoes  of  the  Canary  Islands  are  of  greater  interest ; 
for  among  them  is  the  famous  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  whose  snow-clad 


VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  329 

summit  is  a  conspicuous  land-mark  to  the  mariner.  The  total 
height  of  the  mountain  is  12,090  feet;  but  that  of  the  cone  is  only 
about  550  feet.  Nothing  has  been  emitted  from  the  crater  on  the 
summit  since  it  was  known  to  Europeans,  but  columns  of  vapor. 
There  were,  however,  lateral  eruptions  in  i  704  and  i  706,  resulting 
in  the  destruction  of  the  best  harbor  in  the  island.  This  mountain 
contains  a  subsidiary  elevation,  named  Chahorra,  and  there  was  an 
eruption  from  a  crater  formed  upon  it  in  1798,  which  continued  for 
more  than  three  months.  Streams  of  lava  and  quantities  of  ashes 
and  stones  were  thrown  out  on  this  occasion  ;  and  it  is  affirmed  by 
Humboldt  that  some  of  the  stones  were  projected  to  a  height  so 
great  that  they  occupied  from  twelve  to  fifteen  seconds  in  their 
descent — thus  showing  that  some  of  them  must  have  been  tossed 
to  a  height  of  about  3,000  feet.  This  eminent  traveler  visited  the 
principal  crater  on  the  summit  of  the  Peak,  and  found  it  to  be  of  an 
oval  form  and  small  dimensions — 300  feet  in  its  longer  and  200 
feet  in  its  shorter  diameter,  with  a  depth  of  about  100  feet. 

The  neighboring  island  of  Palma  contains  a  vast  volcanic 
crater,  called  the  Great  Caldera,  which  is  no  less  than  5,000  feet  in 
depth.  In  the  mountain  forming  the  walls  of  this  crater  are  numer- 
ous deep  ravines  called  baraccos,  which  are  regarded  as  fissures 
that  have  been  rent  by  volcanic  action. 

VOLCANOES    IN    THE    ISLAND    OF    LANCEROTA 

The  volcanoes  in  the  island  of  Lancerotaare  those  which  have 
been  most  recently  in  action,  a  crater  having  opened  in  August, 
1824,  near  the  port  of  Rescif  in  this  island.  The  eruption  was 
preceded  by  violent  earthquakes,  and  the  quantity  of  matter 
ejected  was  so  great  as  to  form  a  considerable  hill  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  phenomena  appear  to  have  resembled  those  attending 
the  formation  of  Monte  Nuovo  near  Naples. 


330  VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

But  Lancerota  was,  during  the  last  century,  the  scene  of  a  far 
grander  series  of  eruptions,  which  lasted  for  no  less  than  six  years. 
They  began  on  the  ist  of  September,  1730,  when  there  was 
thrown  up  a  quantity  of  volcanic  materials  so  immense  as  to  form 
in  one  night  a  considerable  hill.  A  few  days  later  there  was 
opened  another  crater,  whence  flowed  a  stream  of  lava  which  over- 
whelmed several  villages.  On  the  7th  of  September  there  was 
thrust  up  with  a  thundering  noise,  from  the  bottom  of  a  lava- 
stream,  a  huge  solid  rock,  which,  dividing  tlie  current,  so  changed 
its  direction  as  to  cause  it  to  overflow,  in  its  new  course,  the  large 
and  flourishing  town  of  St.  Catalina,  besides  several  villages. 
Four  days  after  this,  the  lava,  receiving  a  great  accession,  advanced 
into  the  sea  with  a  terrific  roar.  Vast  quantities  of  fish  were  killed, 
and  thrown  up  to  the  surface  or  stranded  on  the  beach.  After  a 
short  rest  there  were  opened  on  the  very  site  of  St.  Catalina,  which 
had  been  overflowed  by  the  lava,  three  new  craters,  whence  were 
vomited  large  quantities  of  sand,  stones,  and  ashes. 

On  the  28th  of  October  a  remarkable  occurrence  took  place — 
all  the  cattle  in  the  island  dropped  down  dead.  They  had  been 
chocked  by  noxious  vapors  which  rose  from  the  ground,  and,  being 
condensed  on  ascending  into  the  air,  fell  in  showers.  To  add  to 
the  terror  of  the  inhabitants  inspired  by  the  fiery  streams,  there 
rose  a  furious  tempest,  exceeding  in  violence  any  that  had  ever 
been  experienced  in  the  island  before.  On  the  loth  of  January, 
1 73 1,  there  was  thrown  up  a  hill  of  considerable  height  ;  which  on 
the  same  day  fell  down  again  into  the  crater  whence  it  rose,  giving 
place  to  several  currents  of  lava,  which  made  their  way  to  the  sea. 
In  the  following  months  of  January  and  March,  there  were  raised 
several  new  cones,  which  poured  forth  lava  ;  and  fresh  additions 
were  subsequently  made  to  their  number,  till  it  amounted  to  about 


VOLCANOES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  331 

thirty.  In  the  following  June  the  western  shores  were  covered 
with  dying  fish  of  different  species — some  of  them  quite  new  to  the 
inhabitants.  Smoke  and  flames  were  seen  to  rise  from  the  sea,  at 
a  short  distance  from  the  coast.  This  condition  of  volcanic  activity 
in  the  island  did  not  cease  till  1736,  and  the  eruptions  compelled 
a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  to  emigrate  to  the  neighboring 
islands. 

To  the  southward  of  the  Canaries  lie  the  Cape  de  Verde 
Islands,  which  are  also  volcanic.  In  one  of  them  is  a  volcano 
named  Fuego,  which,  after  a  repose  of  fifty  years,  burst  out  afresh 
in  1847.  There  were  opened  no  less  than  seven  mouths,  whence 
issued  great  streams  of  lava,  that  desolated  the  highly  cultivated 
parts  of  the  island,  destroying  many  cattle  and  inflicting  grievous 
loss  on  the  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


Popocatapetl  and  Other  Volcanoes  of  Mexico 

and  Central  America. 


M 


EXICO  is  very  largely  avast  table-land,  rising  through  much 
of  its  extent  to  an  elevation  of  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  bounded  east  and  west  by  wide 
strips  of  torrid  lowlands  adjoining  the  oceans.  It  is  crossed 
at  about  19°  north  latitude  by  a  range  of  volcanic  mountains,  run- 
ning in  almost  a  straight  line  east  and  west,  upon  which  are  several 
extinct  volcanic  cones,  and  five  active  or  quiescent  volcanoes.  The 
highest  of  these  is  Popocatapetl,  south  of  the  city  of  Mexico  and 
nearly  midway  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

East  of  this  mountain  lies  Orizabo,  little  below  it  in  height, 
and  San  Martin  or  Tuxtla,  9,700  feet  high,  on  the  coast  south  of 
Vera  Cruz.  West  of  it  is  Jorullo,  4,000  feet,  and  Colima,  12,800, 
near  the  Pacific  coast.  The  volcanic  energy  continues  south- 
ward toward  the  Isthmus,  but  decreases  north  of  this  volcanic 
range.  These  mountains  have  shown  little  signs  of  activity  in 
recent  times.  Popocatapetl  emits  smoke,  but  there  is  no  record  of 
an  eruption  since  1540.  Orizabo  has  been  quiet  since  1566.  Tuxtla 
had  a  violent  eruption  in  1793,  but  since  then  has  remained  quies- 
cent. Colima  is  the  only  one  now  active.  For  ten  years  past  it 
has  been  emitting  ashes  and  smoke.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  volcanoes  is  Jorullo,  which  closely  resembled  Monte  Nuovo, 
described  in  Chapter  XIII.,  in  its  mode  of  origin. 
332 


VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO  333 

Popocatepetl,  the  hill  that  smokes,  in  the  Mexican  language, 
the  huge  mountain  clothed  in  eternal  snows,  and  regarded  by  the 
idolators  of  old  as  a  god,  towers  up  nearly  18,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  days  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico  was  a 
volcano  in  a  state  of  fierce  activity.  It  was  looked  upon  by  the 
natives  with  a  strange  dread,  and  they  told  the  white  strangers 
with  awe  that  no  man  could  attempt  to  ascend  its  slopes  and  yet 
live  ;  but,  from  a  feeling  of  vanity,  or  the  love  of  adventure,  the 
Spaniards  laughed  at  these  fears,  and  accordingly  a  party  of  ten  of 
the  followers  of  Cortes  commenced  the  ascent,  accompanied  by  a 
few  Indians.  But  these  latter,  after  ascending  about  13,000  feet 
to  where  the  last  remains  of  stunted  vegetation  existed,  became 
alarmed  at  the  subterranean  bellowings  of  the  volcano,  and  returned, 
while  the  Spaniards  still  painfully  toiled  on  through  the  rarefied 
atmosphere,  their  feet  crushing  over  the  scoriae  and  black-glazed 
volcanic  sand,  until  they  stood  in  the  region  of  perpetual  snow, 
amidst  the  orjitterine  treacherous  oflaciers  and  crevasses,  with  vast 
slippery-pathed  precipices  yawning  round. 

Still  they  toiled  on  in  this  wild  and  wondrous  region.  A  few 
hours  before  they  were  in  a  land  of  perpetual  summer  ;  here  all 
was  snow.  They  suffered  the  usual  distress  av/arded  to  those  who 
dare  to  ascend  to  these  solitudes  of  nature  but  it  was  not  griven 
to  them  to  achieve  the  summit,  for  suddenly,  at  a  higher  eleva- 
tion, after  listening  to  various  ominous  threatenings  from  the 
interior  of  the  volcano,  they  encountered  so  fierce  a  storm  of 
smoke,  cinders,  and  sparks,  that  they  were  driven  back  half  suffo- 
cated to  the  lower  portions  of  the  mountain. 

Some  time  after  another  attempt  was  made  ;  and  upon  this 
occasion  with  a  definite  object.  The  invaders  had  nearly  exhausted 
their  stock  of  gunpowder,  and  Cortes  organized  a  party  to  ascend 


334  VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO 

to  the  crater  of  the  volcano,  to  seek  and  bring  down  sulphur  for 
the  manufacture  of  this  necessary  of  warfare.  This  time  the  party 
numbered  but  five,  led  by  one  Francisco  Montano  ;  and  they  expe- 
rienced no  very  great  difficulty  in  winning  their  way  upwards. 
The  region  of  verdure  gave  place  to  the  wild,  lava-strewn  slope, 
which  was  succeeded  in  its  turn  by  the  treacherous  glaciers  ;  and 
at  last  the  gallant  little  band  stood  at  the  very  edge  of  the  crater, 
a  vast  depression  of  over  a  league  in  circumference,  and  i,ooo  feet 
in  depth. 

SULPHUR    FROM    THE    CRATER 

• 

Flame  was  issuing  from  the  hideous  abysses,  and  the  stoutest 
man's  heart  must  have  quailed  as  he  peered  down  into  the  dim, 
mysterious  cavity  to  where  the  sloping  sides  were  crusted  with 
bright  yellow  sulphur,  and  listened  to  the  mutterings  which  warned 
him  of  the  pent-up  wrath  and  power  of  the  mighty  volcano.  They 
knew  that  at  any  moment  flame  and  stifling  sulphurous  vapor 
might  be  belched  forth,  but  now  no  cowardice  was  shown.  They 
had  come  provided  with  ropes  and  baskets,  and  it  only  remained 
to  see  who  should  descend.  Lots  were  therefore  drawn,  and  it  fell 
to  Montano,  who  was  accordingly  lowered  by  his  followers  in  a 
basket  400  feet  into  the  treacherous  region  of  eternal  fires. 

The  basket  swayed  and  the  rope  quivered  and  vibrated,  but 
the  brave  cavalier  sturdily  held  to  his  task,  disdaining  to  show  fear 
before  his  humble  companions.  The  lurid  light  from  beneath 
flashed  upon  his  tanned  features,  and  a  sulphurous  steam  rose 
slowly  and  condensed  upon  the  sides  ;  but,  whatever  were  his 
thoughts,  the  Spaniard  collected  as  much  sulphur  as  he  could  take 
up  with  him,  breaking  off  the  bright  incrustations,  and  even  dally- 
ing with  his  task  as  if  in  contempt  of  the  danger,  till  he  had  leisurely 
fiiled  his  basket,  when  the  signal  was  given  and  he  was  drawn  up. 


VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO  335 

The  basket  was  emptied,  and  then  he  once  more  descended  into 
the  lurid  crater,  collected  another  store  and  was  again  drawn  up  ; 
but  far  from  shrinking  from  his  task,  he  descenced  again  several 
times,  till  a  sufficiency  had  been  obtained,  with  which  the  party- 
descended  to  the  plain, 

THE    VOLCANO    JORULLO 

No  further  back  than  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
site  of  Jorullo  was  a  level  plain,  including  several  highly-cultivated 
fields,  which  formed  the  farm  of  Don  Pedro  di  Jorullo.  The  plain 
was  watered  by  two  small  rivers,  called  Cuitimba  and  San  Pedro, 
and  was  bounded  by  mountains  composed  of  basalt — the  only  indi- 
cations of  former  volcanic  action.  These  fields  were  well  irrigated, 
and  among  the  most  fertile  in  the  country,  producing  abundant 
crops  of  sugar-cane  and  indigo. 

In  the  month  of  June,  1759,  the  cultivators  of  the  farm  began 
to  be  disturbed  by  strange  subterranean  noises  of  an  alarming  kind, 
accompanied  by  frequent  shocks  of  earthquake,  which  continued 
for  nearly  a  couple  of  months ;  but  they  afterward  entirely  ceased, 
so  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  lulled  into  security.  On 
the  night  between  the  28th  and  29th  of  September,  however,  the 
subterranean  noises  were  renewed  with  greater  loudness  than 
before,  and  the  ground  shook  severely.  The  Indian  servants 
living  on  the  place  started  from  their  beds  in  terror,  and  fled  to 
the  neighboring  mountains.  Thence  gazing  upon  their  master's 
farm  they  beheld  it,  along  with  a  tract  of  ground  measuring  be- 
tween three  and  four  square  miles,  in  the  midst  of  which  it  stood, 
rise  up  bodily,  as  if  it  had  been  inflated  from  beneath  like  a  blad- 
der. At  the  edges  this  tract  was  uplifted  only  about  39  feet  above 
the  original  surface,  but  so  great  was  its  convexity  that  toward  the 
middle  it  attained  a  height  of  no  less  than  524  feet. 


336 


VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO 


The  Indians  who  beheld  this  strange  phenomenon  declared 
that  they  saw  flames  issuing  from  several  parts  of  this  elevated 
tract,  that  the  entire  surface  became  agitated  like  a  stormy  sea,  that 
great  clouds  of  ashes,  illuminated  by  volcanic  fires  glowing  beneath 
them,  rose  at  several  points,  and  that  white-hot  stones  were  thrown 
to  an  immense  height.  Vast  chasms  were  at  the  same  time 
opened  in  the  ground,  and  into  these  the  two  small  rivers  above 


JORULLO,  THE  GREAT  MEXICAN  VOLCANO 

mentioned  plunged.  Their  waters,  instead  of  extinguishing  the 
subterranean  conflagration,  seemed  only  to  add  to  its  intensity. 
Quantities  of  mud,  enveloping  balls  of  basalt,  were  then  thrown 
up,  and  the  surface  of  the  elevated  ground  became  studded  with 
small  cones,  from  which  volumes  of  dense  vapor,  chiefly  steam, 
were  emitted,  some  of  the  jets  rising  from  20  to  30  feet  in  height. 
These  cones  the  Indians  called  ovens,  and  in  many  of  them 
was   long   heard   a  subterranean    noise   resembling  that   of  water 


VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO  337 

briskly  boiling.  Out  of  a  great  chasm  in  the  midst  of  those  ovens 
there  were  thrown  up  six  larger  elevations,  the  highest  being  1,640 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  4,315  above  sea  level,  and  now 
constituting  the  principal  volcano  of  Jorullo.  The  smallest  of  the 
six  was  300  feet  in  height  ;  the  others  of  intermediate  elevation. 
The  hio^hest  of  these  hills  had  on  its  summit  a  regular  volcanic 
crater,  whence  there  have  been  thrown  up  great  quantities  of  dross 
and  lava,  containing  fragments  of  older  rocks.  The  ashes  were 
transported  to  immense  distances,  some  of  them  having  fallen  on 
the  houses  at  Oueretaro,  more  than  forty-eight  leagues  from  Jorullo. 
The  volcano  continued  in  this  energetic  state  of  activity  for  about 
four  months  ;  in  the  following  years  its  eruptions  became  less  fre- 
quent, but  it  still  continues  to  emit  volumes  of  vapor  from  the 
principal  crater,  as  well  as  from  many  of  the  ovens  in  the  upheaved 
ground. 

EFFECT    ON    THE    RIVERS 

The  two  rivers,  which  disappeared  on  the  first  night  of  this 
great  eruption,  now  pursue  an  underground  course  for  about  a  mile 
and  a  quarter,  and  then  reappear  as  hot  springs,  with  a  temperature 
of   126°  F. 

This  wonderful  volcanic  upheaval  is  all  the  more  remarkable, 
from  the  inland  situation  of  the  plain  on  which  it  occurred,  it 
being  no  less  than  1 20  miles  distant  from  the  nearest  ocean,  while 
there  is  no  other  volcano  nearer  to  it  than  80  miles.  The  activity 
of  the  ovens  has  now  ceased,  and  portions  of  the  upheaved  plain 
on  which  they  are  situated  have  again  been  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  volcano  is  in  a  state  of  quiescence. 

The  crater  of  Popocatepetl,  which  towers  to  a  height  of 
1 7,000  feet,  is  a  vast  circular  basin,  whose  nearly  vertical  walls  are 
in    some    parts    of  a   pale  rose  tint,  in   others    quite  black.     The 


22 


338  VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO 

bottom  contains  several  small  fuming-  cones,  whence  arise  vapors  of 
changeable  color,  being  successively  red,  yellow  and  white.  All 
round  them  are  large  deposits  of  sulphur,  which  are  worked  for 
mercantile  purposes. 

Orizaba  has  a  little  less  lofty  snow-clad  peak.  This  mountain 
was  in  brisk  volcanic  activity  from  1545  to  1560,  but  has  since  then 
relapsed  into  a  prolonged  repose.  It  was  climbed,  in  1856,  by 
Baron  Mijller,  to  whose  mind  the  crater  appeared  like  the  entrance 
to  a  lower  world  of  horrible  darkness.  He  was  struck  with  aston- 
ishment on  contemplating  the  tremendous  forces  required  to  elevate 
and  rend  such  enormous  masses — to  melt  them,  and  then  pile  them 
up  like  towers,  until  by  cooling  they  became  consolidated  into  their 
present  forms.  The  internal  walls  of  the  crater  are  in  many  places 
coated  with  sulphur,  and  at  the  bottom  are  several  small  volcanic 
craters.  At  the  time  of  his  visit  the  summit  was  wholly  covered 
with  snow,  but  the  Indians  affirmed  that  hot  vapors  occasionally 
ascend  from  fissures  in  the  rocks.  Since  then  others  have  reached 
its  summit,  among  them  Angelo  Heilprin,  the  first  to  gaze  into  the 
crater  of  Mont  Pelee  after  its  eruption. 

ERUPTIONS    IN    NICARAGUA 

On  the  14th  of  November,  1867,  there  commenced  an  eruption 
from  a  mountain  about  eight  leagues  to  the  eastward  of  the  city  of 
Leon,  in  Nicaragua.  This  mountain  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
previously  recognized  as  an  active  volcano,  but  it  is  situated  in  a 
very  volcanic  country.  The  outburst  had  probably  some  connec- 
tion with  the  earthquake  at  St.  Thomas,  which  took  place  on  the 
1 8th  of  November  following.  The  mountain  continued  in  a  state  of 
activity  for  about  sixteen  days.  There  was  thrown  out  an  immense 
quantity  of  black  sand,  which  was  carried  as  far  as  to  the  coast  of 


VOLCANIC  WORK  IN  MEXICO  339 

the  Pacific,  fifty  miles  distant.  Glowing  stones  were  projected  from 
the  crater  to  an  estimated  height  of  three  thousand  feet. 

Central  America  is  more  prolific  of  volcanoes  than  Mexico, 
and  the  State  of  Guatemala  in  particular.  One  authority  credits 
this  State  with  fifteen  or  sixteen  and  another  with  more  than  thirty 
volcanic  cones.  Of  these  at  least  five  are  decidedly  active.  Taju- 
malco,  which  was  in  eruption  at  the  time  of  the  great  earthquake 
of  1863,  yields  great  quantities  of  sulphur,  as  also  does  Quesalte- 
nango.  The  most  famous  is  the  Volcan  de  Agua  (Water  Vol- 
cano), so  called  from  its  overwhelming  the  old  city  of  Guatemala 
with  a  torrent  of  water  in  1541. 

Nicaraorua  is  also  rich  in  volcanoes,  beino-  traversed  its  entire 
length  by  a  remarkable  chain  of  isolated  volcanic  cones,  several  of 
which  are  to  some  extent  active.  We  have  already  told  the  story 
of  the  tremendous  eruption  of  Coseguina  in  1835,  one  of  the  most 
violent  of  modern  times.  The  latest  important  eruption  here  was 
that  of  Ometepec,  a  volcanic  mount  on  an  island  of  the  same  name 
in  Lake  Nicaragua.  This  broke  a  long  period  of  repose  on  June 
19,  1883,  with  a  severe  eruption,  in  which  the  lava,  pouring  from  a 
new  crater,  in  seven  days  overflowed  the  whole  island  and  drove 
off  its  population.  Incessant  rumblings  and  earthquake  shocks 
accompanied  the  eruption,  and  mud,  ashes,  stones  and  lava  covered 
the  mountain  slopes,  which  had  been  cultivated  for  many  centuries. 
These  were  the  most  recent  strong  displays  of  volcanic  energy  in 
Central  America,  though  former  great  outflows  of  lava  are  indi- 
cated by  great  fields  of  barren  rock,  which  extend  for  miles. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

The  Terrible  Eruption  of  Krakatoa. 

THE  most  destructive  volcanic  explosion  of  recent  times,  one 
perhaps  unequalled  in  violence  in  all  times,  was  that  of  the 
small  mountain  island  of  Krakatoa,  in  the  East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, in  1883.  This  made  its  effects  felt  round  the  entire  globe, 
and  excited  such  wide  attention  that  we  feel  called  upon  to  give  It 
a  chapter  of  its  own. 

The  island  of  Krakatoa  lies  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  between 
Java  and  Sumatra.  In  size  it  is  insignificant,  and  had  been  silent 
so  long  that  its  volcanic  character  was  almost  lost  sight  of.  Of  its 
early  history  we  know  nothing.  At  some  remote  time  in  the  past 
it  may  have  appeared  as  a  large  cone,  of  some  twenty-five  miles  in 
circumference  at  base  and  not  less  than  10,000  feet  high.  Then, 
still  in  unknown  times,  its  cone  was  blown  away  by  internal  forces, 
leaving  only  a  shattered  and  irregular  crater  ring.  This  crater  was 
two  or  three  miles  in  diameter,  while  the  highest  part  of  its  walls 
rose  only  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Later  volcanic  work 
built  UD  a  number  of  small  cones  within  the  crater,  and  still  later  a 
new  cone,  called  Rakata,  rose  on  the  edge  of  the  old  one  to  a  height 
of  2,623  feet. 

The  first  known  event  in  the  history  of  the  island  volcano  was 

an  eruption  in  the  year  1680.     After  that  it  lay  in  repose,  forming 

a  group  of  islands,  one  much  larger  than  the  others.     Some  of  the 

smaller  islands  indicated  the  rim  of  the  old  crater,  much  of  which 
340 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  341 

was  buried  under  the  sea.  Its  state  of  quiescence  continued  for 
two  centuries,  a  tropical  vegetation  richly  mantled  the  island,  and 
to  all  appearance  it  had  sunk  permanently  to  rest. 

Indications  of  a  coming  change  appeared  in  1880,  in  the 
form  of  earthquakes,  which  shook  all  the  region  around.  These 
continued  at  intervals  for  more  that  two  years.  Then,  on  May  20, 
1883,  there  were  heard  at  Batavia,  a  hundred  miles  away,  "booming 
sounds  like  the  firing  of  artillery."  Next  day  the  captain  of  a  vessel 
passing  through  the  Straits  saw  that  Krakatoa  was  in  eruption, 
sending  up  clouds  of  smoke  and  showers  of  dust  and  pumice.  The 
smoke  was  estimated  to  reach  a  height  of  seven  miles,  while  the 
volcanic  dust  drifted  to  localities  300  miles  away. 

AWFUL     PREMONITIONS 

The  mountain  continued  to  play  for  about  fourteen  weeks 
with  varying  activity,  several  parties  meanwhile  visiting  it  and 
making  observations.  Such  an  eruption,  in  ordinary  cases,  would 
have  ultimately  died  away,  with  no  marked  change  other  than  per- 
haps the  ejection  of  a  stream  of  lava.  But  such  was  not  now  the 
case.  The  sequel  was  at  once  unexpected  and  terrible.  As  the 
island  was  uninhabited,  no  one  actually  saw  what  took  place,  those 
nearest  to  the  scene  of  the  eruption  having  enough  to  do  to  save 
their  own  lives,  while  the  dense  clouds  of  vapor  and  dust  baffled 
observation. 

The  phase  of  greatest  violence  set  in  on  Sunday,  August  26th. 
Soon  after  midday  sailors  on  passing  ships  saw  that  the  island  had 
vanished  behind  a  dense  cloud  of  black  vapor,  the  height  of  which 
was  estimated  at  not  less  than  seventeen  miles.  At  intervals  fright- 
ful detonations  resounded,  and  after  a  time  a  rain  of  pumice  began 
to  fall  at  places  ten  miles  distant.      For  miles  round  fierce  flashes 


342  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

of  lightning  rent  the  vapor,  and  at  a  distance  of  fully  forty  miles 
ghostly  corposants  gleamed  on  the  rigging  of  a  vessel. 

These  phenomena  grew  more  and  more  alarming  until  August 
27th,  when  four  explosions  of  fearful  intensity  shook  earth  and  sea 
and  air,  the  third  being  "far  the  most  violent  and  productive  of  the 
most  widespread  results."  It  was,  in  fact,  perhaps  the  most  tre- 
mendous volcanic  outburst,  in  its  intensity,  known  in  human  his- 
tory. It  seemed  to  overcome  the  obstruction  to  the  energy  of  the 
internal  forces,  for  the  eruption  now  declined,  and  in  a  day  or  two 
practically  died  away,  though  one  or  two  comparatively  insignificant 
outbursts  took  place  later. 

FAR-REACHING    DESTRUCTION 

The  eruption  spread  ruin  and  death  over  many  surrounding 
leagues.  At  Krakotoa  itself,  when  men  once  more  reached  its 
shores,  everything  was  found  to  be  changed.  About  two-thirds  of 
the  main  island  were  blown  completely  away.  The  marginal  cone 
was  cut  nearly  in  half  vertically,  the  new  cliff  falling  precipitously 
toward  the  centre  of  the  crater.  Where  land  had  been  before  now 
sea  existed,  in  some  places  more  than  one  hundred  feet  deep.  But 
the  part  of  the  island  that  remained  had  been  somewhat  increased 
in  size  by  ejected  materials. 

Of  the  other  islands  and  islets  some  had  disappeared  ;  some 
were  partially  destroyed  ;  some  were  enlarged  by  fallen  debris, 
while  many  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  depth  of  the  neighboring 
sea-bed.  Two  new  islands,  Steers  and  Calmeyer,  were  formed.  The 
ejected  pumice,  so  cavernous  in  structure  as  to  float  upon  the  water, 
at  places  formed  great  floating  islands  which  covered  the  sea  for 
m*les,  and  sometimes  rose  from  four  to  seven  feet  above  it,  proving 
9  serious  obstacle  to  navigation.     On  vessels  near  by  dust  fell  to 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  343 

the  depth  of  eighteen  inches.  The  enormous  clouds  of  volcanic 
dust  which  had  been  flung  high  into  the  air  darkened  the  sky 
for  a  great  area  around.  At  Batavia,  about  a  hundred  miles  from 
the  volcano,  it  produced  an  effect  not  unlike  that  of  a  London  fog. 
This  began  about  seven  in  the  morning  of  August  27th.  Soon 
after  ten  the  light  had  become  lurid  and  yellow,  and  lamps  were 
required  in  the  houses;  then  came  a  downfall  of  rain,  mingled  with 
dust,  and  by  about  half-past  eleven  the  town  was  in  complete  dark- 
ness. It  soon  after  began  to  lighten,  and  the  rain  to  diminish,  and 
about  three  o'clock  it  had  ceased. 

At  Buitenzorg,  twenty  miles  further  away,  the  conditions  were 
similar,  but  lasted  for  a  shorter  time.  In  places  much  farther  away 
the  upper  sky  presented  a  strangely  murky  aspect,  and  the  sun 
assumed  a  green  color.  Phenomena  of  this  kind  were  traced  over 
a  broad  area  of  the  globe,  even  as  far  as  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
while  over  a  yet  wider  area  the  sky  after  sunset  was  lit  up  by  after- 
glows of  extraordinary  beauty.  The  height  to  which  the  dust  was 
projected  has  been  calculated  from  various  data,  with  the  result 
that  121,500  feet,  or  nearly  25  miles,  is  thought  to  be  a  probable 
maximum  estimate,  though  it  may  be  that  occasional  fragments  of 
larger  size  were  shot  up  to  a  still  greater  height. 

A    GRAPHIC    DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    ERUPTION 

Another  effect,  of  a  distressing  character,  followed  the  erup- 
tion. A  succession  of  enormous  waves,  emanating  from  Krakatoa, 
traversed  the  sea,  and  swept  the  coast  bordering  the  Straits  of 
Sunda  with  such  force  as  to  destroy  many  villages  on  the  low-lying 
shores  in  Java,  Sumatra  and  other  islands.  Some  buildings  at  a 
height  of  fifty  feet  above  sea-level  were  washed  away,  and  in  some 
places  the  water  rose  higher,  in   one  place  reaching  the  height  of 


344  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

115  feet.  At  Telok  Betong,  in  Sumatra,  a  ship  was  carried  inland 
a  distance  of  nearly  two  miles,  and  left  stranded  at  a  height  of  thirty 
feet  above  the  sea. 

The  eruption  of  Krakatoa  seems  to  have  been  due  to  some 
deep-lying  causes  of  extraordinary  violence,  this  appearing  not  only 
in  the  terrible  explosion  which  tore  the  island  to  fragments  and 
sent  its  remnants  as  floating  dust  many  miles  high  into  the  air,  but 
also  from  an  internal  convulsion  that  affected  many  of  the  vol- 
canoes of  Java,  which  almost  simultaneously  broke  into  violent 
eruption.  We  extract  from  Dr.  Robert  Bonney's  "  Our  Earth  and 
its  Story"  a  description  of  these  closely-related  events. 

"  The  disturbances  originated  on  the  island  of  Krakatoa,  with 
eruptions  of  red  hot  stones  and  ashes,  and  by  noon  next  day 
Semeru,  the  largest  of  the  Javanese  volcanoes,  was  reported  to  be 
belching  forth  flames  at  an  alarming  rate.  The  eruption  soon 
spread  to  Gunung  Guntur  and  other  mountains,  until  more  than  a 
third  of  the  forty-five  craters  of  Java  were  either  in  activity  or 
seriously  threatening  it. 

"  Just  before  dusk  a  great  cloud  hung  over  Gunung  Guntur, 
and  the  crater  of  the  volcano  began  to  emit  enormous  streams  of 
white  sulphurous  mud  and  lava,  which  were  rapidly  succeeded  by 
explosions,  followed  by  tremendous  showers  of  cinders  and  enor- 
mous fragments  of  rock,  which  were  hurled  high  Into  the  air  and 
scattered  In  all  directions,  carrying  death  and  destruction  with  them. 
The  overhanging  clouds  were,  moreover,  so  charged  with  elec- 
tricity that  water-spouts  added  to  the  horror  of  the  scene.  The 
eruption  continued  all  Saturday  night,  and  next  day  a  dense  cloud, 
shot  with  lurid  red,  gathered  over  the  Kedang  range,  intimating  that 
an  eruption  had  broken  out  there. 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  345 

"  This  proved  to  be  the  case,  for  soon  after  streams  of  lava 
poured  down  the  mountain  sides  into  the  valleys,  sweeping  every- 
thing before  them.  About  two  o'clock  on  Monday  morning — we 
are  drawing  on  the  account  of  an  eye-witness — the  great  cloud  sud- 
denly broke  into  small  sections  and  vanished.  When  light  came  it 
was  seen  that  an  enormous  tract  of  land,  extending  from  Point 
Capucin  on  the  south,  and  Negery  Passoerang  on  the  north  and 
west,  to  the  lowest  point,  covering  about  fifty  square  miles,  had 
been  temporarily  submerged  by  the  'tidal  wave.'  Here  were 
situated  the  vilages  of  Negery  and  Negery  Babawang.  Few  of 
the  inhabitants  of  these  places  escaped  death.  This  section  of  the 
island  was  less  densely  populated  than  the  other  portions,  and  the 
loss  of  life  was  comparatively  small,  although  it  must  have  aggre- 
gated several  thousands.  The  waters  of  Welcome  Bay  in  the 
Sunda  Straits,  Pepper  Bay  on  the  east,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  on 
the  south,  had  rushed  in  and  formed  a  sea  of  turbulent  waves. 

DETONATIONS    HEARD    FOR    MANY    MILES    AWAY 

"  On  Monday  night  the  volcano  of  Papandayang  was  in  an 
active  state  of  paroxysmal  eruption,  accompanied  by  detonations 
which  are  said  to  have  been  heard  for  many  miles  away.  In 
Sumatra  three  distinct  columns  of  flame  were  seen  to  rise  from  a 
mountain  to  a  vast  height,  and  its  whole  surface  was  soon  covered 
with  fiery  lava  streams,  which  spread  to  great  distances  on  all  sides. 
Stones  fell  for  miles  around,  and  black  fragmentary  matter  carried 
into  the  air  caused  total  darkness.  A  whirhvind  accompanied  the 
eruption,  by  which  house-roofs,  trees,  men,  and  horses  were  swept 
into  the  air.  The  quantity  of  matter  ejected  was  such  as  to  cover 
the  ground  and  the  roofs  of  the  houses  at  Denamo  to  the  depth  of 
several    inches.     Suddenly  the    scene    changed.     At    first    it    was 


346  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

reported  that  Papandayang  had  been  split  into  seven  distinct  peaks. 
This  proved  untrue  ;  but  in  the  open  seams  formed  could  be  seen 
great  balls  of  molten  matter.  From  the  fissures  poured  forth 
clouds  of  steam  and  black  lava,  which,  flowing  in  steady  streams, 
ran  slowly  down  the  mountain  sides,  forming  beds  200  or  300  feet 
in  extent.  At  the  entrance  to  Batavia  was  a  large  group  of  houses 
extending  along  the  shore,  and  occupied  by  Chinamen.  This  por- 
tion of  the  city  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  not  many  of  the 
Chinese  who  lived  on  the  swampy  plains  managed  to  save  their 
lives.  They  stuck  to  their  homes  till  the  waves  came  and  washed 
them  away,  fearing  torrents  of  flame  and  lava  more  than  torrents 
of  water. 

"Of  the  3,500  Europeans  and  Americans  in  Batavia — which  for 
several  hours  was  in  darkness,  owing  to  the  fall  of  ashes — 800 
perished  at  Anjer.  The  European  and  American  quarter  was  first 
overwhelmed  by  rocks,  mud  and  lava  from  the  crater,  and  then  the 
waters  came  up  and  swallowed  the  ruins,  leaving  nothing  to  mark 
the  site,  and  causing  the  loss  of  about  200  lives  of  the  inhabitants 
and  those  who  sought  refuge  there." 

The  loss  of  life  above  mentioned  was  but  a  small  fraction  of 
the  total  loss.  All  along  the  coasts  of  the  adjoining  large  islands 
towns  and  villages  were  swept  away  and  their  inhabitants  drowned, 
till  the  total  loss  was,  as  nearly  as  could  be  estimated,  36,000  souls. 
Krakatoa  thus  surpassed  Mont  Pelee  in  its  tale  of  destruction. 
These  two,  indeed,  have  been  the  most  destructive  to  life  of  known 
volcanic  explosions,  since  the  volcano  usually  falls  far  short  of  the 
earthquake  in  its  murderous  results. 

The  distant  effects  of  this  explosion  were  as  remarkable  as  the 
near  ones.  The  concussion  of  the  air  reached  to  an  unprecedented 
distance    and    the    clouds    of    floating    dust    encircled    the  earth, 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  347 

producing  striking  phenomena  of  which  an  account  is  given  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  effects  of  the  Krakatoa  eruption 
made  themselves  evident  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  is  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  outcome  of  this  extraordinary  event.  The  floating 
pumice  reached  the  harbor  of  St.  Paul  on  the  22nd  of  March,  1884, 
after  having  made  a  voyage  of  some  tv/o  hundred  and  sixty  days 
at  a  rate  of  six-tenths  of  a  mile  an  hour.  Immense  quantities  of 
pumice  of  a  similar  description,  and  believed  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  same  source,  reached  Tamatave  in  Madagascar  five  months 
later,  and  no  doubt  much  of  it  long  continued  to  float  round  the 
world. 

SERIES    OF    ATMOSPHERIC    WAVES 

Another  result  of  the  eruption  was  the  series  of  atmospheric 
waves,  caused  by  the  disturbance  in  the  atmosphere,  which  affected 
the  barometer  over  the  entire  world.  The  velocity  with  which 
these  waves  traveled  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  912.09 
feet  to  1066.29  feet  per  second.  This  speed  is,  of  course,  ver}- 
much  inferior  to  that  at  which  sound  travels  through  the  air.  Yet, 
in  three  distinct  cases,  the  noise  of  the  Krakatao  explosions  was 
plainly  heard  at  a  distance  of  at  least  2,200  miles,  and  in  one  in- 
stance^that  recorded  from  Rodriguez — of  nearly  3,000.  The 
sound  travelled  to  Ceylon,  Burmah,  Manila,  New  Guinea  and  West- 
ern Australia,  places,  however,  within  a  radius  of  about  2,000  miles ; 
but  Diego  Garcia  lies  outside  that  area,  and  Rodriguez  a  thousand 
miles  beyond  it.  Six  days  subsequent  to  the  explosion,  after  the 
atmospheric  waves  had  traveled  four  times  round  the  globe,  the 
barometer  was  still  affected  by  them. 

Another  result,  similar  in  kind,  was  the  extraordinary  dissemi- 
nation of  the  great  ocean  wave,  which  in  a  like  manner  seems  to  have 


348  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

encircled  the  earth,  since  high  waves,  without  evident  cause,  appear- 
ed not  only  in  the  Pacific,  but  at  many  places  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
within  a  few  days  after  the  event.  They  were  observed  alike  in 
England  and  at  New  York.  The  writer  happened  to  be  at  Atlantic 
City,  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  at  this  time.  It  was  a  period  of 
calm,  the  winds  being  at  rest,  but,  unheralded,  there  came  in  an 
ocean  wave  of  such  height  as  to  sweep  away  the  ocean-front  board- 
walk and  do  much  other  damag^e.  He  ascribed  this  stranore  wave 
at  the  time  to  the  Krakatoa  explosion,  and  is  of  the  same  opinion 
still. 

In  addition  to  the  account  given  of  this  extraordinary  volcanic 
event,  it  seems  desirable  to  give  Sir  Robert  S.  Ball's  description 
of  it  in  his  recent  work,  "The  Earth's  Beginnings."  While  re- 
peating to  some  extent  what  we  have  already  said,  it  is  worthy, 
from  its  freshness  of  description  and  general  readability,  of  a  place 
here. 

SIR    ROBERT    S.    BALL's    DESCRirTION 

"Until  the  year  1883  few  had  ever  heard  of  Krakatoa.  It 
was  unknown  to  fame,  as  are  hundreds  of  other  gems  of  glorious 
vegetation  set  in  tropical  waters.  It  was  not  inhabited,  but  the 
natives  from  the  surrounding  shores  of  Sumatra  and  Java  used 
occasionally  to  draw  their  canoes  up  on  its  beach,  while  they 
roamed  through  the  jungle  in  search  of  the  wild  fruits  that  there 
abounded.  It  was  known  to  the  mariner  who  navigated  the  Straits 
of  Sunda,  for  it  was  marked  on  his  charts  as  one  of  the  perils  of 
the  intricate  navigation  in  those  waters.  It  was  no  doubt  recorded 
that  the  locality  had  been  once,  or  more  than  once,  the  seat  of  an 
active  volcano.  In  fact,  the  island  seemed  to  owe  its  existence  to 
some  frightful  eruption  of  by-gone  days  ;  but  for  a  couple  of  cen- 
turies there  had  been  no  fresh  outbreak.      It  almost  seemed  as  if 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  349 

Krakatoa  might  be  regarded  as  a  volcano  that  had  become  extinct. 
In  this  respect  it  would  only  be  like  many  other  similar  objects  all 
over  the  globe,  or  like  the  countless  extinct  volcanoes  all  over  the 
moon. 

'*As  the  summer  of  1883  advanced  the  vigor  of  Krakatoa, 
which  had  sprung  into  notoriety  at  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
steadily  increased  and  the  noises  became  more  and  more  vehement ; 
these  were  presently  audible  on  shores  ten  miles  distant,  and  then 
twenty  miles  distant ;  and  still  those  noises  v/axed  louder  and 
louder,  until  the  great  thunders  of  the  volcano,  now  so  rapidly 
developing,  astonished  the  inhabitants  that  dwelt  over  an  area  at 
least  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  And  there  were  other  symptoms 
of  the  approaching  catastrophe.  With  each  successive  convulsion 
a  quantity  of  fine  dust  was  projected  aloft  into  the  clouds.  The 
wind  could  not  carry  this  dust  away  as  rapidly  as  it  was  hurled 
upward  by  Krakatoa,  and  accordingly  the  atmosphere  became 
heavily  charged  with  suspended  particles. 

"A  pall  of  darkness  thus  hung  over  the  adjoining  seas  and 
islands.  Such  was  the  thickness  and  density  of  these  atmospheric 
volumes  of  Krakatoa  dust  that,  for  a  hundred  miles  around,  the 
darkness  of  midnight  prevailed  at  midday.  Then  the  awful  trag- 
edy of  Krakatoa  took  place.  Many  thousands  of  the  unfortunate 
inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  shores  of  Sumatra  and  Java  were  des- 
tined never  to  behold  the  sun  again.  They  were  presently  swept 
away  to  destruction  in  an  invasion  of  the  shore  by  the  tremendous 
waves  with  which  the  seas  surrounding  Krakatoa  were  agitated. 

"As  the  days  of  August  passed  by  the  spasms  of  Krakatoa 
waxed  more  and  more  vehement.  By  the  middle  of  that  month 
the  panic  was  widespread,  for  the  supreme  catastrophe  was  at  hand. 
On   the   night  of  Sunday,  August   26,  1883,  the  blackness  of  the 


350  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

dust-clouds,  now  much  thicker  than  ever  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda 
and  adjacent  parts  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  was  only  occasionally 
illumined  by  lurid  flashes  from  the  volcano. 

"At  the  town  of  Batavia,  a  hundred  miles  distant,  there  was 
no  quiet  that  night.  The  houses  trembled  with  subterranean  vio- 
lence, and  the  windows  rattled  as  if  heavy  artillery  were  being  dis- 
charged in  the  streets.  And  still  these  efforts  seemed  to  be  only 
rehearsing  for  the  supreme  display.  By  ten  o'clock  on  the  morn- 
ing of  Monday,  August  27,  1883,  the  rehearsals  were  over,  and  the 
performance  began.  An  overture,  consisting  of  two  or  three  intro- 
ductory explosions,  was  succeeded  by  a  frightful  convulsion  which 
tore  away  a  large  part  of  the  island  of  Krakatoa  and  scattered  it 
to  the  winds  of  heaven.  In  that  final  outburst  all  records  of  pre- 
vious explosions  on  this  earth  were  completely  broken. 

AN    EXTRAORDINARY     NOISE 

"  This  supreme  effort  it  was  which  produced  the  mightest 
noise  that,  so  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  has  ever  been  heard  on  this 
elobe.  It  must  have  been  indeed  a  loud  noise  which  could  travel 
from  Krakatoa  to  Batavia  and  preserve  its  vehemence  over  so 
great  a  distance  ;  but  we  should  form  a  very  inadequate  conception 
of  the  energy  of  the  eruption  of  Krakatoa  if  we  thought  that  its 
sounds  were  heard  by  those  merely  a  hundred  miles  off.  This 
would  be  little  indeed  compared  with  what  is  recorded  on  testimony 
which  it  is  impossible  to  doubt. 

"  Westward  from  Krakatoa  stretches  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
Indian  Ocean.  On  the  opposite  side  from  the  Straits  of  Sunda  lies 
the  island  of  Rodriguez,  the  distance  from  Krakatoa  being  almost 
three  thousand  miles.  It  has  been  proved  by  evidence  which  can- 
not be  doubted  that  the  thunders  of  the  great  volcano  attracted  the 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  351 

attention  of  an  intelligent  coast-guard  on  Rodriguez,  who  carefully 
noted  the  character  of  the  sounds  and  the  time  of  their  occurrence. 
He  had  heard  them  just  four  hours  after  the  actual  explosion,  for 
this  is  the  time  the  sound  occupied  on  its  journey. 

A    CONSTANT    WIND 

"  This  mighty  incident  at  Krakatoa  has  taught  us  other  les- 
sons on  the  constitution  of  our  atmosphere.  We  previously  knew 
little,  or  I  might  say  almost  nothing,  as  to  the  conditions  prevail- 
inof  above  the  height  of  ten  miles  overhead.  It  was  Krakatoa  which 
first  gave  us  a  little  information  which  was  greatly  wanted.  How 
could  we  learn  what  winds  were  blowing  at  a  height  four  times  as 
great  as  the  loftiest  mountain  on  the  earth,  and  twice  as  great  as 
the  loftiest  altitude  to  which  a  balloon  has  ever  soared  ?  No  doubt 
a  straw  will  show  which  way  the  wind  blows,  but  there  are  no  straws 
up  there.  There  was  nothing  to  render  the  winds  perceptible  until 
Krakatoa  came  to  our  aid.  Krakatoa  drove  into  those  winds  pro- 
digious quantities  of  dust.  Hundreds  of  cubic  miles  of  air  were 
thus  deprived  of  that  invisibility  which  they  had  hitherto  main- 
tained. 

"  With  eyes  full  of  astonishment  men  watched  those  vast  vol- 
umes of  Krakatoa  dust  on  a  tremendous  journey.  Of  course,  every 
one  knows  the  so-called  trade-winds  on  our  earth's  surface,  which 
blow  steadily  in  fixed  directions,  and  which  are  of  such  service  to 
the  mariner.  But  there  is  yet  another  constant  wind.  It  was  first 
disclosed  by  Krakatoa.  Before  the  occurrence  of  that  eruption,  no 
one  had  the  slightest  suspicion  that  far  up  aloft,  twenty  miles  over 
our  heads,  a  mighty  tempest  is  incessantly  hurrying,  with  a  speed 
much  greater  than  that  of  the  awful  hurricane  which  once  laid  so 

o 

large  a  part  of  Calcutta  on  the  ground  and  slew  so  many  of  its 


352  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

inhabitants.  Fortunately  for  humanity,  this  new  trade-wind  does 
not  come  within  less  than  twenty  miles  of  the  earth's  surface.  We 
are  thus  preserved  from  the  fearful  destruction  that  its  unintermit- 
tent  blasts  would  produce,  blasts  against  which  no  tree  could  stand, 
and  which  would,  in  ten  minutes,  do  as  much  damage  to  a  city  as 
would  the  most  violent  earthquake.  When  this  great  wind  had 
become  charged  with  the  dust  of  Krakatoa,  then,  for  the  first,  and, 
I  may  add,  for  the  only  time,  it  stood  revealed  to  human  vision. 
Then  it  was  seen  that  this  wind  circled  round  the  earth  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  equator,  and  completed  its  circuit  in  about  thirteen 
days. 

A    VAST  CLOUD    OF    DUST 

"The  dust  manufactured  by  the  supreme  convulsion  was  " 
whirled  round  the  earth  in  the  mighty  atmospheric  current  into 
which  the  volcano  discharged  it.  As  the  dust-cloud  was  swept 
along  by  this  incomparable  hurricane  it  showed  its  presence  in  the 
most  glorious  manner  by  decking  the  sun  and  the  moon  in  hues  of 
unaccustomed  splendor  and  beauty.  The  blue  color  in  the  sky 
under  ordinary  circumstances  is  due  to  particles  in  the  air,  and 
when  the  ordinary  motes  of  the  sunbeam  were  reinforced  by  the 
introduction  of  the  myriads  of  motes  produced  by  Krakatoa  even 
the  sun  itself  sometimes  showed  a  blue  tint.  Thus  the  progress  of 
the  great  dust-cloud  was  traced  out  by  the  extraordinary  sky  effects 
it  produced,  and  from  the  progress  of  the  dust-cloud  we  inferred 
the  movements  of  the  invisible  air  current  which  carried  it  along. 
Nor  need  it  be  thought  that  the  quantity  of  material  projected 
from  Krakatoa  should  have  been  inadequate  to  produce  effects  of 
this  world-wide  description.  Imagine  that  the  material  which  was 
blown  to  the  winds  of  heaven  by  the  supreme  convulsion  of  Kra- 
katoa could  be  all  recovered  and  swept  into  one  vast  heap.     Imagine 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  353 

that  the  heap  were  to  have  its  bulk  measured  by  a  vessel  consisting 
of  a  cube  one  mile  long,  one  mile  broad  and  one  mile  deep  ;  it  has 
been  estimated  that  even  this  prodigious  vessel  would  have  to  be 
filled  to  the  brim  at  least  ten  times  before  all  the  products  of  Kra- 
katoa  had  been  measured." 

It  is  not  specially  to  the  quantity  of  material  ejected  from 
Krakatoa  that  it  owes  its  reputation.  Great  as  it  was,  it  has  been 
much  surpassed.  Professor  Judd  says  that  the  great  eruptions  of 
Papapandayang,  in  Java,  in  1772,  of  Skaptur  Jokull,  in  Iceland,  in 
1783,  and  of  Tamboro,  in  Sumbawa,  in  181 5,  were  marked  by  the 
extrusion  of  much  larger  quantities  of  material.  The  special 
feature  of  the  Krakatoa  eruption  was  its  extreme  violence,  which 
flung  volcanic  dust  to  a  height  probably  never  before  attained,  and 
produced  sea  and  air  waves  of  an  intensity  unparalleled  in  the 
records  of  volcanic  action.  Judd  thinks  this  was  due  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  crater,  and  the  possible  inflow  through  fissures  of  a  great 
volume  of  sea  water  to  the  interior  lava,  the  result  beinof  the  sudden 
production  of  an  enormous  volume  of  steam. 

EXTRAORDINARY    RED    SUNSETS 

The  red  sunsets  spoken  of  above  were  so  extraordinary  in 
character  that  a  fuller  description  of  them  seems  advisable.  A 
remarkable  fact  concerning  them  is  the  great  rapidity  with  which 
they  were  disseminated  to  distant  regions  of  the  earth.  They  ap- 
peared around  the  entire  equatorial  zone  in  a  few  days  after  the 
eruption,  this  doubtless  being  due  to  the  great  rapidity  with  which 
the  volcanic  dust  was  carried  by  the  upper  air  current.  They  were 
seen  at  Rodriguez,  3,000  miles  away,  on  August  28,  and  within  a 
week  in  every  part  of  the  torrid  zone.  From  this  zone  they  spread 
north  and  south  with  less  rapidity.  Their  first  appearance  in  Aus- 
tralia was  on  September  15th,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on 
23 


354  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

the  20th.  On  the  latter  day  they  were  observed  in  CaHfornia  and 
the  Southern  United  States.  They  were  first  seen  in  England  on 
November  9th.  Elsewhere  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  they 
appeared  from  November  20th  to  30th. 

The  effect  lasted  in  some  instances  as  long  as  an  hour  and 
three-quarters  after  sunset.  In  India  the  sun  and  skies  assumed  a 
greenish  hue,  and  there  was  much  curiosity  regarding  the  cause  of 
the  "green  sun."  Another  remarkable  phenomenon  of  this  period 
was  the  great  prevalence  of  rain  during  the  succeeding  winter. 
This  probably  was  due  to  the  same  cause  ;  that  is,  to  the  fact  of 
the  air  being  so  filled  with  dust;  the  prevailing  theory  in  regard  to 
rain  being  that  the  existence  of  dust  in  the  air  is  necessary  to  its 
fall.  The  vapor  of  the  air  concentrates  into  drops  around  such 
minute  particles,  the  result  being  that  where  dust  is  absent  rain 
cannot  fall. 

As  regards  the  sunsets  spoken  of,  there  are  three  similar  instances 
on  record.  The  first  of  these  was  in  the  year  526,  when  a  dry  fog 
covered  the  Roman  Empire  with  a  red  haze.  Nothing  further  is 
known  concerning  it.  The  other  instances  were  in  the  years  1783 
and  1 83 1.  The  former  of  these  has  been  traced  to  the  great 
eruption  of  Skaptur  Jokull  in  that  year.  It  lasted  for  several 
months  as  a  pale  blue  haze,  and  occasioned  so  much  obscurity  that 
the  sun  was  only  visible  when  twelve  degrees  above  the  horizon, 
and  then  it  had  a  blood-red  appearance.  Violent  thunderstorms 
were  associated  with  it,  thus  assimilating  it  with  that  of  1883. 
Alike  in  1783  and  1831  there  was  a  pearly,  phosphorescent  gleam 
in  the  atmosphere,  by  which  small  print  could  be  read  at  midnight. 
We  know  nothing  regarding  the  meteorological  conditions  of  1831. 

The  red  sunsets  of  1883  were  remarkable  for  their  long  per- 
sistence.    They  were  observed  in  the  autumn  of  1884  with  almost 


TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA  355 

their  original  brilliancy,  and  they  were  still  visible  in  1885,  being 
seen  at  intervals,  as  if  the  dust  was  then  distributed  in  patches, 
and  driven  about  by  the  winds.  In  fact,  similar  sunsets  were  occa- 
sionally visible  for  several  years  afterwards.  These  may  well  have 
been  due  to  the  same  cause,  when  we  consider  with  what  extreme 
slowness  very  fine  dust  makes  its  way  through  the  air,  and  how 
much  it  may  be  affected  by  the  winds. 

THE    RED    SUNSETS    DESCRIBED 

One  writer  describes  the  appearance  of  these  sunsets  in  the 
following  terms  :  "  Immediately  after  sunset  a  patch  of  white  light 
appeared  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  above  the  horizon,  and  shone  for 
ten  minutes  with  a  pearly  lustre.  Beneath  it  a  layer  of  bright  red 
rested  on  the  horizon,  melting  upward  into  orange,  and  this  passed 
into  yellow  light,  which  spread  around  the  lucid  spot.  Next  the 
white  light  grew  of  a  rosy  tint,  and  soon  became  an  intense  rose 
hue.  A  vivid  golden  oriole  yellow  strip  divided  it  from  the  red 
fringe  below  and  the  rose  red  above."  This  description,  although 
exaggerated,   represents  the  general  conditions  of  the  phenomenon. 

On  October  20th,  1884,  the  author  observed  the  sunset  effect 
as  follows :  'Immediately  after  the  sun  had  set,  a  broad  cone  of 
silvery  lustre  rested  upon  a  horizon  of  smoky  pink.  After  fifteen 
minutes  the  white  became  rose  color  above  and  yellowish  below, 
deepening  to  lemon  color,  and  finally  into  reddish  tint,  while  the 
rose  faded  out.  The  whole  cone  gradually  sank  and  died  away  in 
the  brownish  red  flush  on  the  horizon,  more  than  an  hour  after  sun- 
set. The  time  of  duration  varied,  since,  on  the  succeeding  evening, 
it  lasted  only  a  half-hour.  These  sunset  effects,  if  we  can  justly 
attribute   them   all  to  the   Krakatoa  eruption,  were  extraordinary 


356  TERRIBLE  ERUPTION  OF  KRAKATOA 

not  alone  for  their  intensity  and  beauty  but  for  their  extended  dura- 
tion, the  influence  of  this  remarkable  volcanic  outbreak  being  vis- 
ible for  several  years  after  the  event. 

Though  no  doubt  is  entertained  concerning  the  cause  of  the 
red  sunset  effects  of  1783  and  1883,  that  of  1831  is  not  so  readily 
explained,  there  having  been  no  known  volcanic  explosion  of 
great  intensity  in  that  year.  But  in  view  of  the  fact  that  vol- 
canoes exist  in  unvisited  parts  of  the  earth,  some  of  which  may 
have  been  at  work  unkiiown  to  scientific  man,  this  difficulty  is  not 
insuperable.  Possibly  Mounts  Erebus  or  Terror,  the  burning 
mountains  of  the  Antarctic  zone,  may,  unseen  by  man,  have  pre- 
pared for  civilized  lands  this  grand  spectacular  effect  of  Nature's 
doings. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Submarine  Volcanoes  and  their  Work  of  Island 

Building. 

IN  November,  1867,  a  volcano  suddenly  began  to  show  signs  of 
•  activity   beneath  the  deep  sea  of  the   Pacific  Ocean.     There 

are  some  islands  nearly  two  thousand  miles  to  the  east  of 
Australia  called  the  Navigator's  Group,  in  which  there  had  been 
no  history  of  an  eruption,  nor  had  such  an  event  been  handed 
down  by  tradition.  Most  of  the  islands  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  are 
old  volcanoes,  or  are  made  up  of  rocks  cast  forth  from  extinct 
burning  mountains.  They  rise  up  like  peaks  through  the  great 
depths  of  the  ocean,  and  the  top,  which  just  appears  above  the 
sea-level,  is  generally  encircled  by  a  growth  of  coral.  Hence 
they  are  termed  coral  islands.  These  islands  every  now  and  then 
rise  higher  than  the  sea-level,  owing  to  some  deep  upheaving  force, 
and  then  the  coral  is  lifted  up  above  the  water,  and  becomes  a  solid 
rock.  But  occasionally  the  reverse  of  this  takes  place,  and  the 
islands  begin  to  sink  into  the  sea,  owing  to  a  force  which  causes 
the  base  of  the  submarine  mountain  to  become  depressed.  Some- 
times they  disappear.  All  this  shows  that  some  great  disturbing 
forces  are  in  action  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  just  within  the 
earth's  crust,  and  that  they  are  of  a  volcanic  nature. 

For  some  time  before  the  eruption  in  question,  earthquakes 
shook  the  surrounding  islands  of  the  Navigator's  Group,  and 
caused  great  alarm,  and  when  the  trembling  of  the  earth  was  very 

357 


358  SUBMARINE   VOLCANOES 

great,  the  sea  began  to  be  agitated  near  one  of  the  islands,  and 
vast  circles  of  disturbed  water  were  formed.  Soon  the  water  beean 
to  be  forced  upwards,  and  dead  fish  were  seen  floating  about. 
After  a  while,  steam  rushed  forth,  and  jets  of  mud  and  volcanic 
sand.  Moreover,  when  the  steam  began  to  rush  up  out  of  the 
water,  the  violence  of  the  general  agitation  of  the  land  and  of  the 
surface  of  the  sea  increased. 

AN    ERUPTION    DESCRIBED 

When  the  eruption  was  at  its  height  vast  columns  of  mud  and 
masses  of  stone  rushed  into  the  air  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet,  and 
the  fearful  crash  of  masses  of  rock  hurled  upwards  and  coming  in 
collision  with  others  which  were  falling  attested  the  great  volume 
of  ejected  matter  which  accumulated  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean, 
althoucfh  no  trace  of  a  volcano  could  be  seen  above  the  surface  of 
the  sea.  Similar  submarine  volcanic  action  has  been  observed  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  crews  of  ships  have  reported  that  they 
have  seen  in  different  places  sulphurous  smoke,  flame,  jets  of  water, 
and  steam,  rising  up  from  the  sea,  or  they  have  observed  the  waters 
greatly  discolored  and  in  a  state  of  violent  agitation,  as  if  boiling 
in  large  circles. 

New  shoals  have  also  been  encountered,  or  a  reef  of  rocks  just 
emerging  above  the  surface,  where  previously  there  was  always 
supposed  to  have  been  deep  water.  On  some  few  occasions,  the 
gradual  building  up  of  an  island  by  submarine  volcanoes  has  been 
observed,  as  that  of  Sabrina  in  181 1,  off  St.  Michael's,  in  the 
Azores.  The  throwing  up  of  ashes  in  this  case,  and  the  formation 
of  a  conical  hill  300  feet  high,  with  a  crater  out  of  which  spouted 
lava  and  steam,  took  place  very  rapidly.  But  the  waves  had  the 
best  of  it,  and  finally  washed  Sabrina  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean. 


SUBMARINE  VOLCANOES  359 

Previous  eruptions  in  the  same  part  of  the  sea  were  recorded  as 
having  happened  in  1691  and  1720. 

In  1 83 1,  a  submarine  volcanic  eruption  occurred,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  between  Sicily  and  that  part  of  the  African  coast 
where  Carthage  formerly  stood.  A  few  years  before,  Captain 
Smyth  had  sounded  the  spot  in  a  survey  of  the  sea  ordered  by 
Government,  and  he  found  the  sea-bottom  to  be  under  500  feet  of 
water.  On  June  28,  about  a  fortnight  before  the  eruption  was 
visible,  Sir  Pulteney  Malcom,  in  passing  over  the  spot  in  his  ship, 
felt  the  shock  of  an  earthquake  as  if  he  had  struck  on  a  sandbank, 
and  the  same  shocks  were  felt  on  the  west  coast  of  Sicily,  in  a 
direction  from  south-west  to  north-east. 

BUILDING    UP    OF    AN    ISLAND    BY    SUBMARINE    VOLCANOES 

About  July  10,  the  captain  of  a  Sicilian  vessel  reported  that  as 
he  passed  near  the  place  he  saw  a  column  of  water  like  a  water- 
spout, sixty  feet  high,  and  800  yards  in  circumference,  rising  from 
the  sea,  and  soon  after  a  dense  rush  of  steam  in  its  place,  which 
ascended  to  the  height  of  1,800  feet.  The  same  captain,  on  his 
return  eighteen  days  after,  found  a  small  island  twelve  feet  high, 
with  a  crater  in  its  centre,  throwingr  forth  volcanic  matter  and 
immense  columns  of  vapor,  the  sea  around  being  covered  with 
floating  cinders  and  dead  fish.  The  eruption  continued  with  great 
violence  to  the  end  of  the  same  month.  By  the  end  of  the  month 
the  island  grew  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  and  measured  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  round.  By  August  4th  it  became  200  feet  high 
and  three  miles  in  circumference  ;  after  which  it  began  to  diminish 
in  size  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  Towards  the  end  of  October 
the  island  was  levelled  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  sea. 


36o 


SUBMARINE  VOLCANOES 


Naval  officers  and  foreign  ministers  alike  took  an  absorbing 
interest  in  this  new  island.  The  strong  national  thirst  for  terri- 
tory manifested  itself  and  eager  mariners  waited  only  till  the  new 
land  should  be  cool  enouo-h  to  set  foot  on  to  strive  who  should  be 
first  to  plant  there  his  country's  flag.  Names  in  abundance  were 
given  it  by  successive  observers, — Nerita,  Sciacca,  Fernandina, 
Julia,  Hotham,  Corrao,  and  Graham.     The  last  holds  good  in  Eng- 


GRAHAM'S  ISLAND 
Uplift  of  a  Submarine  Volcano 


lish  speech,  and  as  Graham's  Island  it  is  known  in  books  to-day, 
though  the  sea  took  back  what  it  had  given,  leaving  but  a  shoal  of 
cinders  and  sand. 

The  Bay  of  Santorin,  in  the  island  of  that  name,  which  lies 
immediately  to  the  north  of  Crete,  has  long  been  noted  for  Its  sub- 
marine volcanoes.  According  to  one  account,  indeed,  the  whole 
island  was  at  a  remote  period  raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea ; 


SUBMARINE   VOLCANOES  361 

but  this  is  questionable.  It  is,  with  more  reason,  supposed  that  the 
bay  is  the  site  of  an  ancient  crater,  which  was  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  volcanic  cone  that  subsequently  fell  in.  Certain  it  is  that 
Islands  have  from  time  to  time  been  thrown  up  by  volcanic  forces 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  within  this  bay,  and  that  some  of  them 
have  remained,  while  others  have  sunk  again. 

HOW    AN    ISLAND    GREW 

Of  the  existing  islands,  some  were  thrown  up  shortly  before 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  ;  in  particular,  one  called  the 
Great  Cammeni,  which,  however,  received  a  considerable  accession 
to  its  size  by  a  fresh  eruption  in  a.  d.  726.  The  islet  nearest  San- 
torin  was  raised  in  1573,  and  was  named  the  Little  Cammeni ;  and 
in  I  707  there  was  added,  between  the  other  two,  a  third,  which  is 
now  called  the  Black  Island.  This  made  its  appearance  above 
water  on  the  23rd  of  May,  1707,  and  was  first  mistaken  for  a  wreck  ; 
but  some  sailors,  who  landed  on  it,  found  it  to  be  a  mass  of  rock ; 
consisting  of  a  very  white  soft  stone,  to  which  were  adhering  quan- 
tities of  fresh  oysters.  While  they  were  collecting  these,  a  violent 
shaking  of  the  ground  scared  them  away. 

During  several  weeks  the  island  gradually  increased  in  volume  ; 
but  in  July,  at  a  distance  of  about  sixty  paces  from  the  new  islet, 
there  was  thrown  up  a  chain  of  black  calcined  rocks,  followed  by 
volumes  of  thick  black  smoke,  having  a  sulphurous  smell.  A  few 
days  thereafter  the  water  all  around  the  spot  became  hot,  and  many 
dead  fishes  were  thrown  up.  Then,  with  loud  subterraneous  noises, 
flames  arose,  and  fresh  quantities  of  stones  and  other  substances 
were  ejected,  until  the  chain  of  black  rocks  became  united  to  the 
first  islet  that  had  appeared.  This  eruption  continued  for  a  long 
time,  there  being  thrown  out  quantities  of  ashes  and  pumice,  which 


362  SUBMARINE   VOLCANOES 

covered  the  island  of  Santorin  and  the  surface  of  the  sea — some 
being  drifted  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Dardanelles. 
The  activity  of  this  miniature  volcano  was  prolonged,  with  greater 
or  less  energy,  for  about  ten  years. 

In  1866  similar  phenomena  took  place  in  the  Bay  of  Santorin, 
beginning  with  underground  sounds  and  slight  shocks  of  earth- 
quake, which  were  followed  by  the  appearance  of  flames  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea.  Soon  after  there  arose,  out  of  a  dense  smoke, 
a  small  islet,  which  gradually  increased  until  in  a  week's  time  it  was 
60  feet  high,  200  long  and  90  wide.  The  people  of  Santorin  named 
it  "  Georee,"  in  honor  of  the  Kino-  of  Greece.  In  another  week  it 
joined  and  became  continuous  with  the  Little  Cammeni.  The  deto- 
nations increased  in  loudness,  and  large  quantities  of  incandescent 
stones  were  thrown  up  from  the  crater. 

About  the  same  time,  at  the  distance  of  nearly  150  feet  from 
the  coast,  to  the  westward  of  a  point  called  Cape  Phlego,  there 
rose  from  the  sea  another  island,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of 
Aphroessa.  It  sank  and  reappeared  several  times  before  it  estab- 
lished itself  above  water.  The  detonations  and  ejection  of  incan- 
descent lava  and  stones  continued  at  intervals  during  three  weeks. 
From  the  crater  of  the  islet  George,  which  attained  a  height  of  i  50 
feet,  some  stones  several  cubic  yards  in  bulk  were  projected  to  a 
great  distance.  One  of  them  falling  on  board  of  a  merchant  vessel, 
killed  the  captain  and  set  fire  to  the  ship. 

By  the  loth  of  March  the  eruptions  had  partially  subsided,  but 
were  then  renewed,  and  a  third  island,  which  was  named  Reka, 
rose  alongside  of  Aphroessa.  They  were  at  first  separated  by  a 
channel  sixty  feet  deep  ;  but  in  three  days  this  was  filled  up,  and 
the  two  islets  became  united. 


UB MARINE   VOLCANOES  363 

Reference  may  properly  be  made  here  to  Monte  Nuovo  and 
Jorullo,  not  that  they  appertain  to  the  present  subject,  but  that  they 
form  examples  of  the  action  of  similar  forces,  in  the  one  instance 
exerted  on  a  lake  bottom,  in  the  other  on  dry  land,  each  yielding 
permanent  volcanic  elevations  in  every  respect  analogous  to  those 
which  rise  as  islands  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

IN    THE    ICELANDIC    SEAS 

Off  the  coast  of  Iceland  islands  have  appeared  during  several  of 
the  volcanic  eruptions  which  that  remote  dependency  of  Denmark 
has  manifested,  and  at  various  periods  in  Iceland's  history  the  sea 
has  been  covered  with  pumice  and  other  debris,  which  tell  their  own 
tale  of  what  has  been  going  on,  without  being  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  reach  the  surface  in  the  form  of  an  island  mass.  The  sea  off 
Reykjant  s — Smoky  Cape,  as  the  name  means — has  been  a  frequent 
scene  of  these  submarine  eruptions.  In  1240,  during  what  the  Ice- 
landic historians  describe  as  the  eighth  outburst,  a  number  of  islets 
were  formed,  though  most  of  them  subsequently  disappeared,  only 
to  have  their  places  occupied  by  others  born  at  a  later  date.  In 
1422  high  rocks  of  considerable  circumference  appeared.  In  1783, 
about  a  month  before  the  eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokull,  a  volcanic 
island  named  Nyoe,  from  which  fire  and  smoke  issued,  was  built  up. 
But  in  time  it  vanished  under  the  waves,  all  that  remains  of  it  to-day 
being  a  reef  from  five  to  thirty-five  fathoms  below  the  sea-level. 
In  1830,  after  several  long-continued  eruptions  of  the  usual  char- 
acter, another  ide  arose  ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  skerries  known 
as  the  Geirfuglaska  disappeared,  and  with  them  vanished  the  great 
auks,  or  gare-fowls-— birds  now  extinct — which  up  to  that  time  had 
bred  on  them.  At  all  events,  though  the  auks  could  not  well  have 
been  drowned,  no  traces  of  them  were  seen  after  the  date  mentioned. 


364  SUBMARINE   VOLCANOES 

In  July,  1884,  an  island  again  appeared  about  ten  miles  off  Reykja- 
nes ;  but  it  is  already  beginning  to  diminish  in  size,  and  may  soon 
disappear. 

OFF    THE    COAST    OF    ALASKA 

Elsewhere  in  the  region  of  the  northern  seas  there  are  other 
instances  of  the  influence  of  the  submarine  forces  in  raising  up  and 
lowering  land.  The  coast  of  Alaska  is  a  region  of  intense  volcanic 
action.  In  1795,  during  a  period  of  volcanic  activity  in  the  craters 
of  Makushina,  on  Unaiaska,  and  in  others  on  Umnak  Island,  a  vol- 
ume of  smoke  was  seen  to  rise  out  of  the  sea  about  42  miles  to  the 
north  of  Unaiaska,  and  the  next  year  it  was  followed  by  a  heap  of 
cindery  material,  from  which  arose  flame  and  volcanic  matter,  the 
glow  being  visible  over  a  radius  of  ten  miles.  In  four  years  the 
island  grew  into  a  large  cone,  3000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  two 
or  three  miles  in  circumference.  Two  years  later  it  was  still  so  hot 
that  when  some  hunters  landed  on  it  they  found  the  soil  too  warm 
for  walking.  It  was  named  lonna  Bogoslova  (St.  John  the  Theo- 
logian), by  the  Russians,  Agashagok  by  the  Aleuts,  and  is  now 
known  to  the  whites  of  that  region  as  Bogosloff.  Mr.  Dall  believes 
that  it  occupies  the  site  of  some  rocks  that  existed  there  as  long  as 
tradition  extends. 

There  were  additions  to  the  cone  up  to  the  year  1823,  when 
it  became  so  quiescent  as  to  be  the  favorite  haunt  of  seals  and 
sea-fowls,  and,  when  the  weather  was  favorable,  was  visited  by 
native  egg-hunters  from  Unaiaska.  During  the  summer  of  1883 
Bogosloff  was  again  seen  in  eruption,  as  it  was  thought.  However, 
on  closely  examining  the  neighborhood,  it  was  found  that  the  old 
island  was  undisturbed,  but  that  there  had  been  a  fresh  eruption, 
which  had  resulted  in  the  extension  of  Bogosloff  by  the  appearance 
of  a  cone  and  crater  (Hague  Volcano),  357  feet  high,  connected 


SUBMARINE   VOLCANOES  365 

with  the  parent  island  by  a  low  sand-spit,  and  situated  in  a  spot 
where,  the  year  before,  the  lead  showed  800  fathoms  of  water.  At 
the  same  time  Augustin  and  two  other  previously  quiet  islands  on 
the  peninsula  of  Alaska  began  simultaneously  to  emit  smoke,  dust 
and  ashes,  while  a  reef  running  westward  and  formerly  submerged 
became  elevated  to  the  sea  surface.  Other  islands,  of  origin  exactly 
similar  to  Bogosloff  and  those  mentioned,  are  to  be  found  in  this 
region,  notably  Koniugi  and  Kasatochi,  in  the  western  Aleutians, 
and  Pinnacle  Island,  near  St.  Matthew  Island.  Indeed,  the  volcano 
of  Kliutchevsk,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  over  15,000  feet,  is  really 
a  volcanic  island. 

A  permanent  addition  was  made  to  the  Aleutian  group  of 
Islands  by  the  action  of  a  submarine  volcano  in  1806.  This  nev/ 
island  has  the  form  of  a  volcanic  peak,  with  several  subsidiary 
cones.  It  is  four  geographical  miles  in  circumference.  In  18 14 
another  arose  out  of  the  sea  in  the  same  archipelago,  the  cone  t)f 
which  attained  a  height  of  3,000  feet ;  but  at  the  end  of  a  year  it 
lost  a  portion  of  this  elevation. 

In  1856,  in  the  sea  in  the  same  neighborhood,  Captain  Newell, 
of  the  whaling  bark  Alice  Eraser,  witnessed  a  submarine  eruption, 
which  was  also  seen  by  the  crews  of  several  other  vessels.  There 
was  no  island  formed  on  this  occasion,  but  large  jets  of  water  were 
thrown  up,  and  the  sea  was  greatly  agitated  all  around.  Then  fol- 
lowed volcanic  smoke,  and  quantities  of  stones,  ashes,  and  pumice ; 
the  two  latter  being  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  sea  to  a  great 
distance.  Loud  thundering  reports  accompanied  this  eruption,  and 
all  the  ships  in  the  neighborhood  felt  concussions  like  those  pro- 
duced by  an  earthquake.  These  phenomena  seem  to  have  ended 
in  the  formation  of  some  great  submarine  chasm,  into  which  the 
waters  rushed  with  extreme  violence  and  a  terrific  roar. 


366  SUBMARINE  VOLCANOES 

Occurrences  similar  to  this  last  have  been  several  times 
observed  in  a  tract  of  open  sea  in  the  Atlantic,  about  half  a  degree 
south  of  the  equator,  and  between  20°  and  22°  of  west  longitude. 
Although  quantities  of  volcanic  dross  have  been  from  time  to  time 
thrown  up  to  the  surface  in  this  region,  no  island  has  yet  made  its 
appearance  above  water. 

The  events  here  described  repeat  on  a  far  smaller  scale  similar 
ones  which  have  occurred  in  remote  ages  in  many  parts  of  the 
ocean  and  left  great  island  masses  as  the  permanent  effects  of  their 
work.  We  may  instance  the  Hawaiian  group,  which  is  wholly  of 
volcanic  origin,  with  the  exception  of  its  minor  coral  additions,  and 
represents  a  stupendous  activity  of  underground  agencies  beneath 
the  domain  of  Father  Neptune. 

In  part,  as  we  have  said  elsewhere  in  this  work,  all  oceanic 
islands,  remote  from  those  in  the  shoal  bordering  waters  of  the 
continents,  have  been  of  volcanic  or  coral  formation,  or  more  often 
a  combination  of  the  two.  No  sooner  does  an  island  mass  appear 
above  or  near  the  surface  of  tropical  waters  than  the  minute  coral 
animals — effective  only  by  their  myriads — begin  their  labors,  build- 
ing fringes  of  coral  rock  around  the  cindery  heaps  lifted  from  the 
ocean  floor.  The  atolls  of  the  Pacific — circular  or  oval  rings  of 
coral  with  lagunes  of  sea-water  within — have  long  been  thought  to 
be  built  on  the  rims  of  submarine  volcanoes,  rising  to  within  a  few 
hundred  feet  of  the  surface,  much  as  coral  reefs  around  actual 
islands.  If  the  volcanic  mass  should  subsequently  subside,  as  it  is 
likely  to  do,  the  minute  ocean  builders  will  continue  their  work — 
unless  the  subsidence  be  too  rapid  for  their  powers  of  production — 
and  in  this  way  ring-like  islands  of  coral  may  in  time  rise  from 
great  depths  of  sea,  their  basis  being  the  volcanic  island  which  has 
sunk  from  near  the  surface  far  toward  old  ocean's  primal  floor. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

Mud  Volcanoes,  Geysers,  and  Hot  Springs. 

OUR  usual  impression  of  a  volcano  is  indicated  in  the  title  of 
"burning  mountain,"  so  often  employed,  a  great  fire- 
spouting  cone  of  volcanic  debris,  from  which  steam,  lava, 
rock-masses,  cinder-like  fragments,  and  dust,  often  of  extreme  fine- 
ness, are  flung  high  into  the  air  or  flow  in  river-like  torrents  of 
molten  rock.  This,  no  doubt,  applies  in  the  majority  of  cases,  but 
the  volcanic  forces  do  not  confine  themselves  to  these  magnificent 
displays  of  energy,  nor  are  their  products  limited  to  those  above 
specified.  We  have  seen  that  mud  is  a  not  uncommon  product, 
due  to  the  mingling  of  water  with  volcanic  dust,  while  water  alone 
is  occasionally  emitted,  of  which  we  have  a  marked  instance  in  the 
Volcan  de  Agua,  of  Guatemala,  already  mentioned.  As  regards 
mud  flows,  we  may  specially  instance  the  first  outflow  from  Mont 
Pelee,  that  by  which  the  Guerin  sugar  works  were  overwhelmed. 

The  imprisoned  forces  of  the  earth  have  still  other  modes  of 
manifestation.  A  very  frequent  one  of  these,  and  the  most  destruc- 
tive to  human  life  of  them  all,  is  the  earthquake. 

Minor  manifestations  of  volcanic  action  may  be  seen  in  the 
geyser  and  the  hot  spring,  the  latter  the  most  widely  disseminated 
of  all  the  resultant  effects  of  the  heated  condition  of  the  earth's 
interior.  It  is  these  displays  of  subterranean  energy,  differing  from 
those  usually  termed  volcanic,  yet  due  to  the  same  general  causes, 
that  we  have  next  to  consider.     And  it  may  be  premised  that  their 

367 


368  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

manifestations,  while,  except  in  the  case  of  the  earthquake,  less 
violent,  are  no  less  interesting,  especially  as  the  minor  displays  are 
free  from  that  peril  to  human  life  which  renders  the  major  ones  so 
terrible. 

While  the  largest  volcanoes  at  times  pour  out  rivers  of  .liquid 
mud,  there  are  volcanoes  from  which  nothing  is  ever  ejected  but 
mud  and  water,  the  latter  being  generally  salt.  From  this  circum- 
stance they  are  sometimes  called  salses,  but  they  are  more  generally 
termed  mud-volcanoes.  Some  varieties  of  them  throw  out  little 
else  than  gases  of  different  sorts,  and  these  are  called  air-volcanoes. 

THE    GREAT    MUD    VOLCANO    OF    SICILY 

One  of  the  best  known  mud-volcanoes  is  at  Macaluba,  near 
Girgenti,  in  Sicily.  It  consists  of  several  conical  mounds,  varying 
from  time  to  time  in  their  form  and  height,  which  ranges  from  eight 
to  thirty  feet.  From  orifices  on  the  tops  of  these  mounds  there 
are  thrown  out  sometimes  jets  of  warmish  water  and  mud  mixed 
with  bitumen,  sometimes  bubbles  of  gas,  chiefly  carbonic  acid  and 
carburetted  hydrogen,  occasionally  pure  nitrogen.  The  mud  ejected 
has  often  a  strong  sulphurous  smell.  The  jets  in  general  ascend 
only  to  a  moderate  height ;  but  occasionally  they  are  thrown  up 
with  great  violence,  attaining  a  height  of  about  200  feet.  In  1777 
there  was  ejected  an  immense  column,  consisting  of  mud  strongly 
impregnated  with  sulphur  and  mixed  with  naphtha  and  stones,  ac- 
companied also  by  quantities  of  sulphurous  vapors.  This  mud- 
volcano  is  known  to  have  been  in  action  for  fifteen  centuries. 

Very  recently  a  small  mud-volcano  has  been  formed  on  the 
flanks  of  Mount  Etna.  It  began  with  the  throwing  up  of  jets  of 
boiling  water,  mixed  with  petroleum  and  mud,  great  quantities  of 
gas  bubbling  up   at   the  same  time.      In  several  of  the  valleys  of 


MUD  VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS  369 

Iceland  there  are  similar  phenomena,  the  boiling  water  and  mud 
being  thrown  up  in  jets  to  the  height  of  fifteen  feet  and  upwards, 
the  mud  accumulating  around  the  orifices  whence  the  jets  arise. 

A  mud-volcano  named  Korabetoff,  in  the  Crimea,  presents 
phenomena  more  akin  to  those  of  the  igneous  volcanoes  of  South 
America.  There  was  an  eruption  from  this  mountain  on  the  6th 
of  August,  1853.  It  began  by  throwing  up  from  the  summit 
a  column  of  fire  and  smoke;  which  ascended  to  a  great  height. 
This  continued  for  five  or  six  minutes,  and  was  followed  at  short 
intervals  by  two  similar  eruptions.  There  was  then  ejected  with  a 
hissing  noise  a  quantity  of  black  fetid  mud,  which  was  so  hot  as  to 
scorch  the  pfrass  on  the  edo^es  of  the  stream.  The  mud  continued 
to  pour  out  for  three  hours,  covering  a  wide  space  at  the  mountain's 
base.  The  mud-volcanoes  on  the  coast  of  Beloochistan  are  very 
numerous,  and  extend  over  an  area  of  nearly  a  thousand  sc^uare 
miles.     Their  action  resembles  that  at  Macaluba. 

THE    MUD    VOLCANO    OF    JAVA 

There  is  a  mud  volcano  in  Java  which  is  of  interest  as  some- 
what resembling  the  geyser  in  its  mode  of  operation  and  apparently 
due  to  similar  agencies.      It  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Horsfield  : — 

"  On  approaching  it  from  a  distance,  it  is  first  discovered  by  a 
large  volume  of  smoke,  rising  and  disappearing  at  intervals  of  a  few 
seconds,  resembling  the  vapors  rising  from  a  violent  surf.  A  loud 
noise  is  heard,  like  that  of  distant  thunder.  Having  advanced  so 
near  that  the  vision  was  no  longer  impeded  by  the  smoke,  a  large 
hemispherical  mass  was  observed,  consisting  of  black  earth  mixed 
with  water,  about  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  rising  to  the  height  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  a  perfectly  regular  manner,  and  as  if  it  were 
pushed  up  by  a  force  beneath,  which  suddenly  exploded  with  a  loud 
24 


370 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 


noise,  and  scattered  about  a  volume  of  black  mud  in  every  direc- 
tion. After  an  interval  of  two  or  three,  or  sometimes  four  or  five 
seconds,  the  hemispherical  body  of  mud  rose  and  exploded  again. 
In  the  manner  stated  this  volcanic  ebullition  goes  on  without  inter- 
ruption, throwing  up  a  globular  body  of  mud,  and  dispersing  it  with 
violence  through  the  neighboring  plain.  The  spot  where  the  ebul- 
lition occurs  is  nearly  circular,  and  perfectly  level.  It  is  covered 
only  with  the  earthy  particles,  impregnated  with  salt  water,  which 
are  thrown  up  from  below.  The  circumference  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  half  an  Enoflish  mile.  In  order  to  conduct  the  salt 
water  to  the  circumference,  small  passages  or  gutters  are  made  in  the 
loose  muddy  earth,  which  lead  to  the  borders,  where  it  is  collected 
in  holes  dug  in  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  evaporation." 

The  mud  has  a  strong,  pungent,  sulphurous  smell,  resembling 
that  of  mineral  oil,  and  is  hotter  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
During  the  rainy  season  the  explosions  increase  in  violence. 

There  are  submarine  mud  volcanoes  as  well  as  those  of 
igneous  kind.  In  1814  one  of  this  character  broke  out  in  the 
Sea  of  Azof,  beginning  with  flame  and  black  smoke,  accompanied 
by  earth  and  stones,  which  were  flung  to  a  great  height.  Ten  of 
these  explosions  occurred,  and,  after  a  period  of  rest,  others  were 
heard  during  the  night.  The  next  morning  there  was  visible  above 
the  water  an  island  of  mud  some  ten  feet  high.  A  very  similar 
occurrence  took  place  in  1827,  near  Baku,  in  the  Caspian  sea. 
This  began  with  a  flaming  display  and  the  ejection  of  great  frag- 
ments of  rock.  An  eruption  of  mud  succeeded.  A  set  of  small  vol- 
canoes discovered  by  Humboldt  in  Turbaco,  in  South  America, 
confined  their  emissions  almost  wholly  to  gases,  chiefly  nitrogen. 

There  is  a  close  connection  in  character  between  mud  volcanoes 
and  those  intermittent  boiling  springs  named  geysers.  A  good  many 


MUD    VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS  371 

of  the  mud  volcanoes  throw  out  jets  of  boiling  water  along  with 
the  mud;  but  in  the  case  of  the  geysers,  the  boiling  water  is  ejected 
alone,  without  any  visible  impregnation,  though  some  mineral  in 
solution,  as  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  or  sulphur,  is  usually  present. 

THE    GEYSER     IS    A    WATER    VOLCANO 

The  phenomenon  of  the  geyser  serves  in  a  measure  to  support 
the  theory  that  steam  is  an  important  agent  in  volcanic  action.  A 
geyser,  in  fact,  may  be  designated  as  a  water  volcano,  since  it 
throws  up  water  only.  It  comprises  a  cone  or  mound,  usually  only 
a  few  feet  high.  In  the  middle  of  this  is  a  crater-like  opening  with 
a  passage  leading  down  into  the  earth.  As  in  the  case 
of  the  volcano,  the  geyser  cone  is  built  up  by  its  own  action. 
In  the  boiling  water  which  is  ejected  there  is  dissolved  a  certain 
amount  of  silica.  As  the  water  falls  and  cools  this  mineral  is 
deposited,  gradually  building  up  a  cup-like  elevation.  The  basin  of 
the  geyser  is  generally  full  of  clear  water,  with  a  little  steam  rising 
from  its  surface  ;  but  at  intervals  an  eruption  takes  place,  some- 
times at  regular  periods,  but  more  often  at  irregular  intervals. 

Among  the  largest  and  best  known  geysers  in  the  world  are 
those  of  Iceland,  chief  among  them  being  the  Great  Geyser.  Silica 
is  the  mineral  with  which  the  waters  of  this  fountain  are  impreg- 
nated, and  the  substance  which  they  deposit,  as  they  slowly  evapo- 
rate, is  named  siliceous  sinter.  Of  this  material  is  composed  the 
mound,  six  or  seven  feet  high,  on  which  the  spring  is  situated.  On 
the  top  of  the  mound  is  a  large  oval  basin,  about  three  feet  in  depth, 
measuring  in  its  larger  diameterabout  fifty-six,  and  in  its  shorter  about 
forty-six  feet.  The  centre  of  this  basin  is  occupied  by  a  circular 
well  about  ten  feet  in  diameter,  and  between  seventy  and  eighty 
feet  deep. 


372  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

Out  of  the  central  well  springs  a  jet  of  boiling  water,  at  inter- 
vals of  six  or  seven  hours.  When  the  fountain  is  at  rest,  both  the 
basin  and  the  well  appear  quite  empty,  and  no  steam  is  seen.  But 
on  the  approach  of  the  moment  for  action,  the  water  rises  in  the 
well,  till  it  flows  over  into  the  basin.  Then  loud  subterranean  ex- 
plosions are  heard,  and  the  ground  all  round  is  violently  shaken. 

Instantly,  and  with  immense  force,  a  steaming  jet  of  boiling 
water,  of  the  full  width  of  the  well,  springs  up  and  ascends  to  a 
great  height  in  the  air.  The  top  of  this  large  column  of  water  is 
enveloped  in  vast  clouds  of  steam,  which  diffuse  themselves  through 
the  air,  rendering  it  misty.  These  jets  succeed  each  other  with  great 
rapidity  to  the  .number  of  sixteen  or  eighteen,  the  period  of  action 
of  the  fountain  being  about  five  minutes.  The  last  of  the  jets 
generally  ascends  to  the  greatest  height,  usually  to  about  lOO,  but 
sometimes  to  150  feet ;  on  one  occasion  it  rose  to  the  great  height 
of  212  feet.  Having  ejected  this  great  column  of  water,  the  action 
ceases,  and  the  water  that  had  filled  the  basin  sinks  down  into  the 
well.  There  it  remains  till  the  time  for  the  next  eruption,  when  the 
same  phenomena  are  repeated.  It  has  been  found  that,  by  throw- 
ing large  stones  into  the  well,  the  period  of  the  eruption  may  be 
hastened,  while  the  loudness  of  the  explosions  and  the  violence  of 
the  fountain  effect  are  increased,  the  stones  being  at  the  same  time 
ejected  with  great  force. 

ERUPTION    CAN    BE    INDUCED    BY    ARTIFICIAL    MEANS 

Geysers  are  found  all  over  the  island,  presenting  various  pecu- 
liarities. In  the  case  of  one  of  the  smaller  ones,  which  is  called 
Strokr,  or  the  Churn,  an  eruption  can  be  induced  by  artificial  means, 
A  barrow-load  of  sods  is  thrown  into  the  crater  of  the  geyser,  with 
the  effect  of  causing  an  eruption.     The  sensitiveness  of  Strokr  is 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS  373 

due  to  its  peculiar  form.  An  observer  states  that,  "The  bore  is 
eight  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  forty-four  feet  deep.  Below 
twenty-seven  feet  it  contracts  to  nineteen  inches,  so  that  the  turf 
thrown  in  completely  chokes  it.  Steam  collects  below  ;  a  foaming 
scum  covers  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
it  surges  up  the  pipe.  The  fountain  then  begins  playing,  sending 
its  bundles  of  jets  rather  higher  than  those  of  the  Great  Geyser, 
flinging  up  the  clods  of  turf  which  have  been  its  obstruction  like  a 
number  of  rockets.  This  magnificent  display  continues  for  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  or  twenty  minutes.  The  erupted  water  flows  back 
into  the  pipe  from  the  curved  sides  of  the  bowl.  This  occasions  a 
succession  of  bursts,  the  last  expiring  effort,  very  generally,  being 
the  most  magnificent.  Strokr  gives  no  warning  thumps,  like  the 
Great  Geyser,  and  there  is  not  the  same  roaring  of  steam  accom- 
panying the  outbreak  of  the  water." 

The  same  author  thus  describes  an  eruption  of  the  Great 
Geyser,  which  occurred  about  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  :  "A  vio- 
lent concussion  of  the  ground  brought  me  and  my  companions  to 
our  feet.  We  rushed  out  of  the  tent  in  every  condition  of  disha- 
bille and  were  in  time  to  see  Geyser  put  forth  his  full  strength. 
Five  strokes  underground  were  the  signal,  then  an  overflow,  wet- 
ting every  side  of  the  mound.  Presently  a  dome  of  water  rose  in 
the  centre  of  the  basin  and  fell  again,  immediately  to  be  followed 
by  a  fresh  bell,  which  sprang  into  the  air  fully  forty  feet  high, 
accompanied  by  a  roaring  burst  of  steam.  Instantly  the  fountain 
began  to  play  with  the  utmost  violence,  a  column  rushing  up  to  the 
height  of  ninety  or  one  hundred  feet  against  the  gray  night  sky, 
with  mighty  volumes  of  white  steam  cloud  rolling  after  it  and 
swept  off  by  the  breeze  to  fall  in  torrents  of  hot  rain.  Jets  and 
lines  of  water  tore  their  way  through  the  clouds,  or  leaped  high 


374  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

above  its  domed  mass.  The  earth  trembled  and  throbbed  during 
the  explosion,  then  the  column  sank,  started  up  again,  dropped 
once  more,  and  seemed  to  be  sucked  back  into  the  earth.  We  ran 
to  the  basin,  which  was  left  dry,  and  looked  down  the  bore  at  the 
water,  which  was  bubbling  at  the  depth  of  six  feet." 

In  the  case  of  Strokr,  the  cause  of  this  eruption  is  not  difficult 
to  understand.  The  narrow  part  of  the  channel  is  choked  up  by 
the  turf  and  the  steam,  and  prevented  from  escaping.  Finally  it 
gains  such  force  as  to  drive  out  the  obstacle  with  a  violent  explo- 
sion, just  as  a  bottle  of  fermenting  liquor  may  blow  out  the  cork 
and  discharge  some  of  its  contents. 

Geysers  are  somewhat  abundant  phenomena,  existing  in  many 
parts  of  the  earth,  while  striking  examples  of  them  are  found  in 
the  widely  separated  regions  of  Iceland,  New  Zealand,  Japan  and 
the  western  United  States.  In  the  volcanic  region  of  New  Zealand 
geysers  and  their  associated  hot  springs  are  abundant.  It  was  to 
their  action  that  we  owed  the  famous  white  and  pink  terraces  and 
the  warm  lake  of  Rotomahana  which  were  ruined  by  the  destructive 
eruption  of   Mount  Tarawera,  already  described. 

GEYSERS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

The  United  States  is  abundantly  supplied  with  hot  springs, 
but  geysers,  outside  of  the  Yellowstone  region,  are  found  only  in 
California  and  Nevada.  Those  of  California  exist  chiefly  in  Napa 
Valley,  north  of  San  Francisco,  in  a  canon  or  defile.  Their  waters 
are  impregnated  not  with  silica,  but  with  sulphur,  and  they  thus 
approach  more  nearly  in  their  character  to  mud-volcanoes,  whose 
ejections  are,  in  like  manner,  much  impregnated  with  that  sub^ 
stance.  They  are  also,  like  them,  collected  in  groups,  there  being 
no  less  than  one  hundred  openings  within  a  space  of  flat  ground  a 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 


375 


mile  square.  Owing  to  their  number  and  proximity,  their  individual 
energy  is  nothing  like  so  violent  as  that  of  the  geysers  of  Iceland. 
Their  jets  seldom  rise  higher  than  20  or  30  feet ;  but  so  great  a 
number  playing  within  so 

confined  a  space  produces  ^^^^^^^^^^^KM. 
an  imposing  effect.  The 
jets  of  boiling  water  issue 
with  a  loud  noise  from  lit- 
tle conical  mounds,  around 
which  the  ground  is  merely 
a  crust  of  sulphur.  When 
this  crust  is  penetrated, 
the  boiling  water  may  be 
seen  underneath.  The 
rocks  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  these  fountains 
are  all  corroded  by  the 
action  of  the  sulphurous 
vapors.  Nevertheless, 
within  a  distance  of  not 
more  than  50  feet  from 
them,  trees  grow  without 
injury  to  their  health. 

Few  of  these  foun- 
tains, however,  are  regular 
geysers,  most  of  them 
discharging  only  steam. 
From  the  Steamboat  Geyser  this  ascends  to  a  height  of  from  50 
to  100  feet,  with  a  roar  like  that  of  the  escape  from  a  steamboat 
boiler.     Associated  with  the  geysers  are  numerous    hot    springs. 


A  GEYSER  IN  ERUPTION,  YELLOWSTONE 
NATIONAL  PARK. 


376  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

some  clear,  some  turbid,  and  variously  impregnated  with  iron, 
sulphur  or  alum.  In  Nevada  the  Steamboat  Springs,  as  they  are 
designated,  exist  in  Washoe  Valley,  east  of  the  Virginian  range. 
They  come  nearer  in  character  to  the  Yellowstone  geysers,  their 
waters  depositing  true  geyserite,  or  silicious  concretions.  The 
Volcano  Springs,  in  Lauder  County,  are  also  true  geysers,  though 
of  small  importance.  The  ground  here  is  so  thickly  perforated  by 
holes  from  which  steam  escapes  that  it  looks  like  a  cullender. 

THE    YELLOWSTONE     GEYSERS 

The  most  remarkable  geyser  country  in  the  world,  alike  for 
the  size  and  the  number  of  its  spouting  fountains,  is  the  Yellow- 
stone region  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  Territory  of  Wyoming, 
in  the  United  States,  which,  by  a  special  act  of  Congress,  has  been 
reserved  as  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  exempt  from  settle- 
ment, purchase  or  pre-emption.  Here  nearly  every  form  of  geyser 
and  unintermittent  hot  spring  occurs,  with  deposits  of  various 
kinds,  silicious,  calcareous,  etc.  Of  the  hot  springs.  Dr.  Peale 
enumerates  2,195,  and  considers  that  within  the  limits  of  the  park — 
which  is  about  54  miles  by  62  miles,  and  includes  3,312  square' 
miles — as  many  as  3,000  actually  exist.  The  same  geologist  notes 
the  existence  of  71  geysers  in  the  area  mentioned,  though  some  of 
the  number  are  only  inferred  to  be  spouting  springs  from  the  form 
of  their  basins  and  the  character  of  the  surrounding  deposits.  Of 
this  vast  collection  of  still  and  eruptive  springs,  between  which 
there  seems  every  gradation,  those  which  do  not  send  water  into  the 
air  are,  owing  to  the  magnificent  cascades  which  they  form,  often 
quite  as  remarkable  as  those  which  take  the  shape  of  geysers.  The 
more  striking  of  the  latter  may,  however,  be  briefly  mentioned. 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS  377 

In  the  Gibbon  Basin  is  a  geyser  of  late  origin.  In  1878  this 
consisted  of  two  steam  holes,  roaring  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  that 
looked  as  if  they  had  recently  burst  through  the  surface  ;  and  the 
gully  leading  towards  the  ravine  was  at  that  date  filled  with  sand, 
which  appeared  to  have  been  poured  out  during  an  eruption.  Dead 
trees  stood  on  the  line  of  this  sand  floor,  and  others,  with  their  bark 
still  remaining,  and  even  with  their  foliage  not  lost,  were  uprooted 
hard  by,  everything  indicating  that  the  "  steamboat  vent,"  as  it  was 
called,  was  of  recent  formation.  In  1875  i^  h^<^  "^^  existence,  but 
in  1879  ^^  spouting  spring — which  first  opened,  it  is  believed,  on 
the  iith  of  August  in  the  preceding  year — had  "settled  down  to 
business  as  a  very  powerful  flowing  geyser,"  with  a  double  period  ; 
one  eruption  occurring  every  half  hour,  and  projecting  w^ater  to  the 
height  of  30  feet ;  the  main  eruption  occurring  every  six  or  seven 
days,  with  long  continued  action,  and  a  column  of  nearly  100  feet. 

The  New  Geyser  in  the  same  basin  is  also  of  quite  recent 
origin.  It  consists  of  two  fissures  in  the  rock,  in  which  the  water 
boils  vigorously.  But  there  is  no  mound,  and  the  rocks  of  the  fis^ 
sure  are  just  beginning  to  get  a  coating  of  the  silicious  geyserite 
deposited  from  the  water,  so  that  it  cannot  long  have  been  spout- 
ing. Again,  in  the  Grotto  Geyser — in  the  Upper  Geyser  Basin  of 
Fire  Hole  River — the  main  or  larp-er  crater  is  hollowed  into  fantas- 
tic  arches,  beneath  which  are  the  grotto-like  cavities  from  which  it 
is  named,  which  act  as  lateral  orifices  for  the  escape  of  water  during 
an  eruption.  It  plays  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  twenty-four 
hours,  and  sends  a  column  of  water  sixty  feet  high,  the  eruption 
lasting  an  hour.  As  yet,  however,  the  force  of  the  water  has  not 
been  sufficient,  or  of  sufficiently  long  duration,  to  break  through 
the  arches  covering  the  basin  or  crater.  The  Excelsior— claimed 
to  be  the  largest  of  its  order,  which  sent  water  nearly  300  feet  into 


378  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

the  air  at  intervals  of  about  five  hours,  and  of  such  volume  as  to 
wash  away  bridges  over  small  streams  below — was  not,  until  com- 
paratively recent  years,  known  as  a  specially  powerful  geyser.  But 
if  it  had  for  a  time  waned  in  importance,  its  immense  crater,  330 
feet  in  length  and  200  feet  at  the  widest  part,  shows  that  at  a  still 
earlier  date  it  was  a  gigantic  fountain.  In  this  deep  pit,  when  the 
breeze  wafted  aside  the  clouds  of  steam  constantly  arising  from  its 
surface,  the  water  could  be  seen  seething  15  or  20  feet  below  the 
surrounding  level.  Yet  into  the  cauldron  of  boiling  water  a  little 
stream  of  cold  water,  from  the  melting  snow  of  the  uplands,  ran 
unceasingly.      Since  1888  this  great  geyser  has  been  inactive. 

The  Castle  Geyser  is  so  named  on  account  of  the  fancied 
resemblance  which  its  mound  of  white  and  grey  deposit  presents  to 
the  ruins  of  a  feudal  keep,  the  crater  itself  being  placed  on  a  cone 
or  turret,  which  has  a  somewhat  imposing  appearance  compared 
with  the  other  geysers  in  the  neighborhood.  It  throws  a  column 
usually  about  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
hours,  but  sometimes  the  discharge  shoots  up  much  higher. 

The  Giant,  in  the  Upper  Geyser  Basin,  has  a  peculiar  crater, 
which  has  been  likened  to  the  stump  of  a  hollow  sycamore  tree  of 
gigantic  proportions,  whose  top  has  been  wrenched  off  by  a  storm. 
This  curious  cup  is  broken  down  at  one  side,  as  though  it  had 
been  torn  away  during  an  eruption  of  more  than  ordinary  violence, 
and  on  this  side  the  visitor  Is  able  to  look  into  the  crater,  if  he  can 
contrive  to  avoid  the  jets  which  are  canstantly  spouted  from  it.  The 
periods  of  rest  which  it  takes  are  varied,  an  eruption  often  not  occur- 
ring for  several  days  at  a  time  ;  yet  when  it  breaks  out  it  con- 
tinues playing  for  more  •  than  three  hours,  with  a  volume  of  water 
reaching  a  height  of  from  130  to  140  feet.  In  the  interval  little 
spouts  are   constantly  in   progess,      Mr.  Stanley  saw  one  eruption 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 


379 


which  he  calculated  to  have  shot  a  column  of  water  to  the  height 
of  more  than  200  feet.  At  first  it  seemed  as  though  the  geyser 
was  only  making  a  feint,  the  discharge  which  preceded  the  great 
one  being  merely  repeated  several  times,  followed  by  a  cessation 
both   of  the   rumbling   noises  and   of  the  ejection  of  water.      But 


THE  FAMOUS  TERRACES  OF  YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 

soon,  after  a  premonitory  cloud  of  steam,  the  geyser  began  to  work 
in  earnest,  the  column  discharged  rising  higher  and  higher,  until 
it  reached  the  altitude  mentioned. 

'At  first  it  appeared  to  labor  in  raising  the  immense  volume, 
which  seemed  loath  to  start  on  its  heavenward  tour  ;  but  it  was 
with  perfect  ease  that  the  stupendous  column  was  held  to  its  place, 


38o  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

the  water  breaking  into  jets  and  returning  in  glittering  showers  to 
the  basin.  The  steam  ascended  in  dense  volumes  for  thousands  of 
feet,  when  it  was  freighted  on  the  wings  of  the  winds  and  borne 
away  in  clouds.  The  fearful  rumble  and  confusion  attending  it 
were  as  the  sound  of  distant  artillery,  the  rushing  of  many  horses 
to  battle,  or  the  roar  of  a  fearful  tornado.  It  commenced  to  act  at 
2  p.  M.,  and  continued  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  the  latter  part  of 
which  it  emitted  little  else  than  steam,  rushing  upward  from  its 
chambers  below,  of  which,  if  controlled,  there  was  enough  to  run 
an  engine  of  wonderful  power.  The  waving  to  and  fro  of  such  a 
gigantic  fountain,  when  the  column  is  at  its  highest, 

'  Tinselled  o'er  in  robes  of  varying  hues', 
and  glistening  in  the  bright  sunlight,  which  adorns  it  with  the 
alowing  colors  of  many  a  gorgeous  rainbow,  affords  a  spectacle  so 
wonderful  and  grandly  magnificent,  so  overwhelming  to  the  mind, 
that  the  ablest  attempt  at  description  gives  the  reader  who  has 
never  witnessed  such  a  display  but  a  feeble  idea  of  its  glory." 

A    DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    GEYSER    AT    WORK 

The  only  other  geysers  in  this  remarkable  geyserland  which 
we  can  spare  room  to  notice  are  those  known  as  the  Giantess,  the 
Beehive,  and  the  Grand.  The  Giantess  sends  a  column  of  water 
to  the  height  of  250  feet.  An  eruption  is  usually  divided  into 
three  periods — two  preliminary  efforts  and  a  final  one,  divided 
from  each  other  by  intervals  of  between  one  and  two  hours,  while 
the  intervals  of  discharge  are  very  long.  Sometimes  it  does  not 
play  for  several  weeks.  The  Beehive,  which  is  400  feet  from  the 
Giantess,  gets  its  name  from  the  peculiar  beehive-like  cone  which 
it  has  formed.  The  eruption  is  also  almost  unique.  It  is  heralded 
by  a  slight  escape  of  steam,  which  is  followed  by  a  column  of  steam 


MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS  381 

and  water,  shooting  to  the  height  of  over  200  feet.  The  column 
is  somewhat  fan-shaped,  but  it  does  not  fall  In  rain,  the  spray 
being  evaporated  and  carried  off  as  steam — if,  indeed,  there  is  not 
more  steam  than  water  in  the  column.  The  duration  of  the  dis- 
charge is  between  four  and  five  minutes,  and  the  interval  between 
two  eruptions  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-five  hours. 

The  Grand  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Upper  Gey- 
ser basin.  Yet,  unlike  the  Grotto,  the  Giant,  or  the  Old  Faithful, 
— so  called  from  its  frequent  and  regular  eruptions — it  has  no  raised 
cone  or  crater,  and  a  much  less  cavernous  bowl  than  the  Giantess 
and  other  geysers.  The  column  discharged  ascends  to  the  height 
of  from  eighty  to  two  hundred  feet,  and  the  eruptions  last  from 
fifteen  minutes  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  with  intervals  on  an 
average  of  from  seven  to  twenty  hours.  This  fountain  is  appar- 
ently very  irregular  in  its  action,  though  it  is  just  possible  that 
when  the  Yellowstone  geysers  have  been  more  consecutively  stud- 
ied, it  will  be  found  that  these  seeming  irregularities  depend  on 
the  varying  supplies  of  water  at  different  times  of  the  year. 

THE    MAMMOTH    HOT    SPRINGS 

The  marvellous  phenomena  of  the  Yellowstone  region  are  not 
confined  to  geyser  action,  hot  springs  of  steady  flow  being,  as  above 
stated,  exceedingly  numerous.  Of  these  the  most  striking  are  those 
known  as  the  Mammoth  Hot  Springs,  whose  waters  find  their  way 
through  underground  passages,  finally  flowing  from  an  opening  as 
the  "  Boiling  River,"  which  empties  into  the  Gardiner  River. 

These  springs  are  marvels  of  beauty.  Their  terraced  bowls, 
adorned  with  delicate  fret-work,  are  among  the  finest  specimens  of 
Nature's  handiwork  in  the  world,  and  the  colored  waters  themselves 
are  startling  in   their  brilliancy.      Red,  pink,  black,  canary,  green, 


382  MUD   VOLCANOES  AND  GEYSERS 

saffron,  blue,  chocolate,  and  all  their  intermediate  gradations  are 
found  here  in  exquisite  harmony.  The  springs  rise  in  terraces  of 
various  heights  and  widths,  having  intermingled  with  their  delicate 
shades  chalk-like  cliffs,  soft  and  crumbly,  these  latter  being  the 
remains  of  springs  from  which  the  life  and  beauty  have  departed. 
The  great  spring  is  the  largest  in  the  country,  the  water  flowing 
through  three  openings  into  a  basin  forty  feet  long  by  twenty-five 
feet  wide.  From  this  the  hot  mineral  waters  drip  over  into  lower 
basins,  of  gracefully  curved  and  scalloped  outline,  the  minerals 
deposited  on  the  lips  of  the  basin  forming  stalagmites  of  variegated 
hue,  yielding  a  brilliant  and  beautiful  effect.  The  terraced  basins 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  former  New  Zealand  pink  and  white 
terraces,  and  since  the  annihilation  of  the  latter  are  the  most 
charming  examples  in  existence  of  this  rare  form  of  Nature's  artistic 
handiwork. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Theories  of  Volcanic  and  Earthquake  Action. 

THOUGH  the  first  formation  of  a  volcano  (Italian,  vulcano, 
from  Vulcan,  the  Roman  god  of  fire)  has  seldom  been  wit- 
nessed, it  would  seem  that  it  is  marked  by  earthquake  move- 
ments followed  by  the  opening  of  a  rent  or  fissure  ;  but  with  no 
such  tilting  up  of  the  rocks  as  was  once  supposed  to  take  place. 
From  this  fissure  large  volumes  of  steam  issue,  accompanied  by 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  sulphur 
dioxide.  The  hydrogen,  apparently  derived  from  the  dissociation 
of  water  at  a  high  temperature,  flashes  explosively  into  union  with 
atmospheric  oxygen,  and,  having  exerted  its  explosive  force,  the 
steam  condenses  into  cloud,  heavy  masses  of  which  overhang  the 
volcano;  pouring  down  copious  rains.  This  naturally  disturbs  the 
electrical  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that  thunder  and  lightning 
are  frequent  accompaniments  of  an  eruption.  The  hydrochloric 
acid  probably  points  to  the  agency  of  sea-water.  Besides  the  gases 
just  mentioned,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  ammonia  and  common  salt 
occur;  but  mainly  as  secondary  products,  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  vapors  issuing  from  the  volcano,  and  commonly  found  also  in 
the  vapors  rising  from  cooling  lava  streams  or  dormant  volcanic 
districts.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  vapors  issue  from  the 
volcano  spasmodically,  explosions  succeeding  each  other  with  great 
rapidity  and  noise. 

All  substances  thrown  out   by  the  volcano,  whether  gaseous, 
liquid  or  solid,  are  conveniently  united  under  the  term  ejectamenta 

383 


384  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

(Latin,  things  thrown  out),  and  all  of  them  are  in  an  intensely- 
heated,  if  not  an  incandescent  state.  Most  of  the  gases  are  incom- 
bustible, but  the  hydrogen  and  those  containing  sulphur  burn  with 
a  true  fiame,  perhaps  rendered  more  visible  by  the  presence  of  solid 
particles.  Much  of  the  so-called  flame,  however,  in  popular  descrip- 
tions of  eruptions  is  an  error  of  observation  due  to  the  red-hot 
solid  particles  and  the  reflection  of  the  glowing  orifice  on  the  over- 
hanging clouds. 

ENORMOUS    FORCE    DISPLAYED 

Solid  bodies  are  thrown  into  the  air  with  enormous  force  and 
to  proportionally  great  heights,  those  not  projected  vertically  fall- 
ing in  consequence  at  considerable  distances  from  the  volcano.  A 
block  weighing  200  tons  is  said  to  have  been  thrown  nine  miles  by 
Cotopaxi  ;  masses  of  rock  weighing  as  much  as  twenty  tons  to 
have  been  ejected  by  Mount  Ararat  in  1840;  and  stones  to  have 
been  hurled  to  a  distance  of  thirty-six  miles  in  other  cases  The 
solid  matter  thrown  out  by  volcanoes  consists  of  lapilli,  scorice,' 
dust  and  bombs. 

Though  on  the  first  formation  of  the  volcano,  masses  of  non- 
volcanic  rock  maybe  torn  from  the  chimney  or  pipe  of  the  mountain, 
only  slightly  fused  externally  owing  to  the  bad  conducting  power 
of  most  rocks,  and  hurled  to  a  distance  ;  and  though  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  subsequent  eruption  the  solid  plug  of  rock  which  has 
cooled  at  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  or,  in  fact,  any  part  of  the 
volcano,  may  be  similarly  blown  up,  the  bulk  of  the  solid  particles 
of  which  the  volcano  itself  is  composed  is  derived  from  the  lake  of 
lava  or  molten  rock  which  seethes  at  the  orifice.  Solid  pieces  rent 
from  this  fused  mass  and  cast  up  by  the  explosive  force  of  the 
steam  with  which  the  lava  is  saturated  are  known  as  lapilli.     Cooling 


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VOL CANIC  AND  EAR THQ  UAKE  A  CTION  :iSs 

rapidly   so   as   to    be    glassy   in     texture    externally,  these     often 
have  time  to  become  perfectly  crystalline  within. 

Gases  and  steam  escaping  from  other  similar  masses  may  leave 
them  hollow,  when  they  are  termed  bombs,  or  may  pit  their  sur- 
faces with  irregular  bubble-cavities,  when  they  are  called  scorics  or 
scoriaceous.  Such  masses  whirling  through  the  air  in  a  plastic 
state  often  become  more  or  less  oblately  spheroidal  in  form ;  but, 
as  often,  the  explosive  force  of  their  contained  vapors  shatters 
them  into  fragments,  producing  quantities  of  the  finest  volcanic 
dust  or  sand.  This  fine  dust  darkens  the  clouds  overhanging  the 
mountain,  mixes  with  the  condensed  steam  to  fall  as  a  black  mud- 
rain,  or  lava  di  aqua  (Italian,  water  lava),  or  is  carried  up  to  enor- 
mous heights,  and  then  slowly  diffused  by  upper  currents  of  the 
atmosphere.  In  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  of  a.d.  79,  the  air  was 
dark  as  midnight  for  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  round ;  the  city  of 
Pompeii  was  buried  beneath  a  deposit  of  dry  scori(s,  or  ashes  and 
dust,  and  Herculaneum  beneath  a  layer  of  the  mud-like  lava  di 
aqua,  which  on  drying  sets  into  a  compact  rock.  Rocks  formed 
from  these  fragmentary  volcanic  materials  are  known  as  tuff. 

VOLCANIC    CONES    HAVE    SIMILAR    CURVATURES 

It  is  entirely  of  these  cindery  fragments  heaped  up  with  mar- 
vellous rapidity  round  the  orifice  that  the  volcano  itself  is  first 
formed.  It  may,  as  in  the  case  of  Jorullo  in  Mexico  in  1759,  foirn 
a  cone  several  hundred  feet  high  in  less  than  a  day.  Such  a  cone 
may  have  a  slope  as  steep  as  30°  or  40°,  its  incline  in  all  cases 
depending  simply  on  the  angle  of  repose  of  its  materials,  the 
inclination,  that  is,  at  which  they  stop  rolling.  The  great  volcanoes 
of  the  Andes,  which  are  formed  mainly  of  ash,  are  very  steep. 
Owing  to  a  general  similarity  in  their  materials,  volcanic  cones  in 
25 


386  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

all  parts  of  the  world  have  very  similar  curvatures  ;  but  older 
volcanic  mountains,  in  which  lava-streams  have  broken  through  the 
.cone,  secondary  cones  have  arisen,  or  portions  have  been  blown 
up,  are  more  irregular  in  outline  and  more  gradual  in  inclination. 

In    size,  volcanoes    vary    from    mere    mounds  a  few   yards  in 
diameter,  such  as  the  salses  or  mud  volcanoes  near  the  Caspian,  to 
Etna,  10,800  feet  high,  with  a  base  30  miles  in  diameter  ;  Cotopaxi, 
in  the  Andes,  18,887   feet   high;  or   Mauna   Loa,  in  the    Sandwich 
Isles,  13,700  feet  high,  with   a  base   70  miles  in  diameter,  and  two 
craters,    one   of   which,  Kilauea,   the   largest   active  crater  on   our 
earth,  is   seven   miles   in    circuit.      Larger  extinct   craters  occur  in 
Japan  ;  but  all   our  terrestrial  volcanic   mountains  are   dwarfed  by 
those  observed   on   the  surface   of   the   moon,  which,  owing  to   its 
smaller  size,  has   cooled   more    rapidly   than    our  earth.      It   is,   of 
course,  the   explosive    force   from   below   which   keeps   the    crater 
clear,  as  a  cup-shaped  hollow,  truncating  the  cone  ;  and   all  stones 
falling  into  it  would  be  only  thrown  out  again.      It  may  at  the  close 
of    an    eruption   cool  down   so   completely   that   a  lake  can    form 
within    it,  such    as    Lake    Averno,    near    Naples ;  or   it    may    long 
remain  a  seething  sea  of   lava,  such   as  -Kilauea  ;  or  the   lava   may 
find  one  or  more   outlets  from   it,  either  by  welling  over  its   rim, 
which  it  will  then  generally  break   down,  as  in   many  of  the  small 
extinct  volcanoes  ("puys")  of  Auvergne,  or  more  usually  by  burst- 
ine  through  the  sides  of  the  cone. 

LAVA    VARIES    VERY    MUCH    IN    LIQUIDITY 

It  is  not  generally  until  the  volcano  has  exhausted  its  first 
explosive  force  that  lava  begins  to  issue.  Several  streams  may 
issue  in  different  directions.  Their  dimensions  are  sometimes  enor- 
mous.     Lava  varies  very  much  in  liquidity  and  in  the  rate  at  which 


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388  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

it  flows.  This  much  depends,  however,  upon  the  slope  it  has  to 
traverse.  A  lava  stream  at  Vesuvius  ran  three  miles  in  four 
minutes,  but  took  three  hours  to  flow  the  next  three  miles,  while 
a  stream  from  Mauna  Loa  ran  eighteen  miles  in  two  hours.  Glow- 
ing at  first  as  a  white-hot  liquid,  the  lava  soon  cools  at  the  surface 
to  red  and  then  to  black  ;  cinder-like  scoriaceous  masses  form  on 
its  surface  and  in  front  of  the  slowly-advancing  mass  ;  clouds  of 
steam  and  other  vapor  rise  from  it,  and  little  cones  are  thrown  up 
from  its  surface  ;  but  many  years  may  elapse  before  the  mass  is 
cooled  through.  Thus,  while  the  surface  is  glassy,  the  interior 
becomes  crystalline. 

As  to  what  are  the  causes  of  the  great  convulsions  of  nature 
known  as  the  volcano  and  the  earthquake  we  know  very  little. 
Various  theories  have  been  advanced,  but  nothing  by  any  means 
sure  has  been  discovered,  and  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
exists.  In  truth  we  know  so  little  concerning  the  conditions  exist- 
ing in  the  earth's  interior  that  any  views  concerning  the  forces  at 
work  there  must  necessarily  be  largely  conjectural. 

Sir  Robert  S.  Ball  says,  in  this  connection  :  "  Let  us  take,  for 
instance,  that  primary  question  in  terrestrial  physics,  as  to  whether 
the  interior  of  the  earth  is  liquid  or  solid.  If  we  were  to  judge 
merely  from  the  temperatures  reasonably  believed  to  exist  at  a 
depth  of  some  twenty  miles,  and  if  we  might  overlook  the  question 
of  pressure,  we  should  certainly  say  that  the  earth's  interior  must 
be  in  a  fluid  state.  It  seems  at  least  certain  that  the  temperatures 
to  be  found  at  depths  of  two  score  miles,  and  still  more  at  greater 
depths,  must  be  so  high  that  the  most  refractory  solids,  whether 
metals  or  minerals,  would  at  once  yield  if  we  could  subject  them  to 
such  temperatures  in  our  laboratories.  But  none  of  our  laboratory 
experiments  can  tell  us  whether,  under  the  pressure  of  thousands 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  389 

of  tons  on  the  square  inch,  the  appHcation  of  any  heat  whatever 
would  be  adequate  to  transform  soHds  into  Hquids.  It  may,  indeed, 
be  reasonably  doubted  whether  the  terms  solid  and  liquid  are 
applicable,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  understand  them,  to  the 
materials  forming  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

"  A  principle,  already  well  known  in  the  arts,  is  that  many,  if 
not  all,  solids  may  be  made  to  flow  like  liquids  if  only  adequate 
pressure  be  applied.  The  making  of  lead  tubes  is  a  well-known 
practical  illustration  of  this  principle,  for  these  tubes  are  formed 
simply  by  forcing  solid  lead  by  the  hydraulic  press  through  a  mould 
which  imparts  the  desired  shape. 

"  If  then  a  solid  can  be  made  to  behave  like  a  liquid,  even 
with  such  pressures  as  are  within  our  control,  how  are  we  to  sup- 
pose that  the  solids  would  behave  with  such  pressures  as  those  to 
which  they  are  subjected  in  the  interior  of  the  earth  ?  The  fact  is 
that  the  terms  solid  and  liquid,  at  least  as  wc  understand  them, 
appear  to  have  no  physical  meaning  with  regard  to  bodies  sub- 
jected to  these  stupendous  pressures,  and  this  must  be  carefully 
borne  in  mind  when  we  are  discussing  the  nature  of  the  interior  of 
the  earth." 

THE    VOLCANOE    A    SAFETY    VALVE 

Whatever  be  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  depths  of  the  earth's 
crust,  we  may  look  upon  the  volcano  as  a  sort  of  safety-valve,  open- 
ing a  passage  for  the  pent-up  forces  to  the  surface,  and  thus  reliev- 
ing the  earth  from  the  terrible  effects  of  the  earthquake,  through 
which  these  imprisoned  powers  so  often  make  themselves  felt. 
Without  the  volcanic  vent  there  might  be  no  safety  for  man  on  the 
earth's  unquiet  face. 

Professor  J.  C.  Russell,  of  Michigan  University,  presents  the 
following  views  concerning  the  status  and  action  of  volcanoes  : — 


390  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

"  When  reduced  to  its  simplest  terms,  a  volcano  may  be  defined 
as  a  tube,  or  conduit,  in  the  earth's  crust,  through  which  the  molten 
rock  is  forced  to  the  surface.  The  conduit  penetrates  the  cool  and 
rigid  rocks  forming  the  superficial  portion  of  the  earth,  and  reaches 
its  highly  heated  interior. 

"  The  length  of  volcanic  conduits  can  only  be  conjectured,  but, 
judging  from  the  approximately  known  rate  of  increase  of  heat 
with  depth  (on  an  average  one  degree  Fahrenheit  for  each  sixty 
feet),  and  the  temperature  at  which  volcanic  rocks  melt  (from  2,300 
to  2,700  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when  not  under  pressure),  they  must 
seemingly  have  a  depth  of  at  least  twenty  miles.  There  are  other 
factors  to  be  considered,  but  in  general  terms  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  conduits  of  volcanoes  are  irregular  openings,  many  miles 
in  depth,  which  furnish  passageways  for  molten  rock  (lava)  from 
the  highly-heated  sub-crust  portion  of  the  earth  to  its  surface.    .    .    . 

ERUPTIONS    OF    QUIET    TYPE 

"  During  eruptions  of  the  quiet  type,  the  lava  comes  to  the 
surface  in  a  highly  liquid  condition — that  is,  it  is  thoroughly  fused, 
and  flows  with  almost  the  freedom  of  water.  It  spreads  widely, 
even  on  a  nearly  level  plain,  and  may  form  a  comparatively  thin 
sheet  several  hundred  square  miles  in  area,  as  has  been  observed  in 
Iceland  and  Hawaii.  On  the  Snake  River  plains,  in  Southern  Idaho, 
there  are  sheets  of  once  molten  rock  which  were  poured  out  in  the 
manner  just  stated,  some  four  hundred  square  miles  in  area  and  not 
over  seventy-five  feet  in  average  thickness.  When  an  eruption  of 
highly  liquid  lava  occurs  in  a  mountainous  region,  the  molten  rock 
may  cascade  down  deep  slopes  and  flow  through  narrow  valleys  for 
fifty  miles  or  more  before  becoming  chilled  sufficiently  to  arrest  its 
progress.     Instances   are   abundant   where   quiet   eruptions    have 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  391 

occurred  in  the  midst  of  a  plain,  and  built  up  'lava  cones,'  or  low 
mounds,  with  immensely  expanded  bases.  Illustrations  are  fur- 
nished in  Southern  Idaho,  in  which  the  cones  formed  are  only  three 
hundred  or  four  hundred  feet  high,  but  have  a  breadth  at  the  base 
of  eight  or  ten  miles.  In  the  class  of  eruption  illustrated  by  these 
examples,  there  is  an  absence  of  fragmental  material,  such  as 
explosive  volcanoes  hurl  into  the  air,  and  a  person  may  stand  within 
a  few  yards  of  a  rushing  stream  of  molten  rock,  or  examine  closely 
the  opening  from  which  it  is  being  poured  out,  without  danger  or 
serious  inconvenience. 

"  The  quiet  volcanic  eruptions  are  attended  by  the  escape  of 
steam  or  gases  from  the  molten  rock,  but  the  lava  being  in  a  highly 
liquid  state,  the  steam  and  gases  dissolved  in  it  escape  quietly  and 
without  explosions.  If,  however,  the  molten  rock  is  less  com- 
pletely fluid,  or  in  a  viscous  condition,  the  vapors  and  gases  con- 
tained in  it  find  difficulty  in  escaping,  and  may  be  retained  until, 
becoming  concentrated  in  large  volume,  they  break  their  way  to 
the  surface,  producing  violent  explosions.  Volcanoes  in  which  the 
lava  extruded  is  viscous,  and  the  escape  of  steam  and  gases  is 
retarded  until  the  pent-up  energy  bursts  all  bounds,  are  of  the 
explosive  type.      One  characteristic  example  is  Vesuvius. 

"  When  steam  escapes  from  the  summit  of  a  volcanic  conduit — 
which,  in  plain  terms,  is  a  tall  vessel  filled  with  intensely  hot  and 
more  or  less  viscous  liquid — masses  of  the  hquid  rock  are  blown 
into  the  air,  and  on  falling  build  up  a  rim  or  crater  about  the  place 
of  discharge.  Commonly  the  lava  in  the  summit  portion  of  a  con- 
duit becomes  chilled  and  perhaps  hardened,  and  when  a  steam 
explosion  occurs  this  crust  is  shattered  and  the  fragments  hurled 
into  the  air  and  contributed  to  the  building  of  the  walls  of  the 
inclosing  crater, 


392  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

"  The  solid  rock  blown  out  by  volcanoes  consists  usually  of 
highly  vesicular  material  which  hardened  on  the  surface  of  the 
column  of  lava  within  a  conduit  and  was  shattered  by  explosions 
beneath  it.  These  fragments  vary  in  size  from  dust  particles  up  to 
masses  several  feet  in  diameter,  and  during  violent  eruptions  are 
hurled  miles  high.  The  larger  fragments  commonly  fall  near  their 
place  of  origin,  and  usually  furnish  the  principal  part  of  the  material 
of  which  craters  are  built,  but  the  gravel-like  kernels,  lapilli,  may 
be  carried  laterally  several  miles  if  a  wind  is  blowing,  while  the  dust 
is  frequently  showered  down  on  thousands  of  square  miles  of  land 
and  sea.  The  solid  and  usually  angular  fragments  manufactured 
in  this  manner  vary  in  temperature,  and  may  still  be  red  hot  on 
falling. 

"  Volcanoes  of  the  explosive  type  not  uncommonly  discharge 
streams  of  lava,  which  may  flow  many  miles.  In  certain  instances 
these  outwellings  of  liquid  rock  occur  after  severe  earthquakes  and 
violent  explosions,  and  may  have  all  the  characteristics  of  quiet 
eruptions.  There  is  thus  no  fundamental  difference  between  the 
two  types  into  which  it  is  convenient  to  divide  volcanoes. 

MOUNTAINS    BLOW    THEIR    HEADS    OFF 

'*  In  extreme  examples  of  explosive  volcanoes,  the  summit  por- 
tion of  a  crater,  perhaps  several  miles  in  circumference  and  several 
thousand  feet  high,  is  blown  away.  Such  an  occurrence  is  recorded 
in  the  case  of  the  volcano  Coseguina,  Nicaragua,  in  1835.  Or,  an 
entire  mountain  may  disappear,  being  reduced  to  lapilli  and  dust 
and  blown  into  the  air,  as  in  the  case  of  Krakatoa,  in  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  in  1883. 

"  The  essential  feature  of  a  volcano,  as  stated  above,  is  a  tube 
or  conduit,  leading  from  the  highly  heated  sub-crust  portion  of  the 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  393 

earth  to  the  crater  and  through  which  molten  rock  is  forced  upward 
to  the  surface.  The  most  marked  variations  in  the  process  depend 
on  the  quantity  of  molten  rock  extruded,  and  on  the  freedom  of 
escape  of  the  steam  and  gases  contained  in  the  lava. 

"  The  cause  of  the  rise  of  the  molten  rock  in  a  volcano  is  still 
a  matter  for  discussion.  Certain  geologists  contend  that  steam  is 
the  sole  motive  power  ;  while  others  consider  that  the  lava  is  forced 
to  the  surface  owing  to  pressure  on  the  reservoir  from  which  it 
comes.  The  view  perhaps  most  favorably  entertained  at  present, 
in  reference  to  the  general  nature  of  volcanic  eruptions,  is  that  the 
rigid  outer  portion  of  the  earth  becomes  fractured,  owing  principally 
to  movements  resulting  from  the  shrinking  of  the  cooline  inner 
mass,  and  that  the  intensely  hot  material  reached  by  the  fissures, 
previously  solid  owing  to  pressure,  becomes  liquid  when  pressure 
is  relieved,  and  is  forced  to  the  surface.  As  the  molten  material 
rises  it  invades  the  water-charged  rocks  near  the  surface  and  acquires 
steam,  or  the  gases  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  water,  and 
a  new  force  is  added  which  produces  the  most  conspicuous  and  at 
times  the  most  terrible  phenomena  accompanying  eruptions." 

The  active  agency  of  water  is  strongly  maintained  by  many 
geologists,  and  certainly  gains  support  from  the  vast  clouds  of  steam 
given  off  by  volcanoes  in  eruption  and  the  steady  and  quiet 
emission  of  steam  from  many  in  a  state  of  rest.  The  quantities  of 
water  in  the  liquid  state,  to  which  is  due  the  frequent  enormous 
outflows  of  mud,  leads  to  the  same  conclusion.  Many  scientists, 
indeed,  while  admitting  the  agency  of  water,  look  upon  this  as  the 
aqueous  material  originally  pent  up  within  the  rocks.  For  instance 
Professor  Shaler,  dean  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  says  : 

"  Volcanic  outbreaks  are  merely  the  explosion  of  steam  under 
high  pressure,  steam  which  is  bound  in  rocks  buried  underneath 


394  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

the  surface  of  the  earth  and  there  subjected  to  such  tremendous 
heat  that  when  the  conditions  are  right  its  pent-up  energy  breaks 
forth  and  it  shatters  its  stone  prison  walls  into  dust.  The  process 
by  which  the  water  becomes  buried  in  this  manner  is  along  one. 
Some  contend  that  it  leaks  down  from  the  surface  of  the  earth 
through  fissures  in  the  outer  crust,  but  this  theory  is  not  generally 
accepted.  The  common  belief  is  that  water  enters  the  rocks  dur- 
ing the  crystalization  period,  and  that  these  rocks  through  the 
natural  action  of  rivers  and  streams  become  deposited  in  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean.  Here  they  lie  for  many  ages,  becoming  buried 
deeper  and  deeper  under  masses  of  like  sediment,  which  are  con- 
stantly being  washed  down  upon  them  from  above.  This  process 
is  called  the  blanketing  process. 

"  Each  additional  layer  of  sediment,  while  not  raising  the  level 
of  the  sea  bottom,  buries  the  first  layers  just  so  much  the  deeper 
and  adds  to  their  temperature  just  as  does  the  laying,  of  extra 
blankets  on  a  bed.  When  the  first  layer  has  reached  a  depth  of  a 
few  thousand  feet  the  rocks  which  contain  the  water  of  crystaliza- 
tion are  subjected  to  a  terrific  heat.  This  heat  generates  steam, 
which  is  held  in  a  state  of  frightful  tension  in  its  rocky  prison. 
Wrinklings  in  the  outer  crus^  of  the  earth's  surface  occur,  caused 
by  the  constant  shrinking  of  the  earth  itself  and  by  the  contraction 
of  the  outer  surface  as  it  settles  on  the  plastic  centers  underneath. 
Fissures  are  caused  by  these  foldings,  and  as  these  fissures  reacli 
down  into  the  earth  the  pressure  is  removed  from  the  rocks  and 
the  compressed  steam  in  them,  being  released,  explodes  with  tre- 
mendous force." 

This  view  is,  very  probably,  applicable  to  many  cases,  and  the 
exceedingly  fine  dust  which  so  often  rises  from  volcanoes  has, 
doubtless,  for  one  of  its  causes  the  sudden  and  explosive  conversion 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  395 

of  water  into  steam  in  the  interior  of  ejected  lava,  thus  rending 
it  into  innumerable  fragments.  But  that  this  is  the  sole  mode 
of  action  of  water  in  volcanic  eruptions  is  very  questionable.  It 
certainly  does  not  agree  with  the  immense  volumes  at  times  thrown 
out,  while  explosions  of  such  extreme  intensity  as  that  of  Krakatoa 
very  strongly  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  a  great  mass  of  water  has 
made  its  way  through  newly  opened  fissures  to  the  level  of  molten 
rock,  and  exploded  into  steam  with  a  suddenness  which  gave  it  the 
rending  force  of  dynamite  or  the  other  powerful  chemical  explosives. 
As  the  earthquake  is  so  intimately  associated  with  the  volcano 
the  causes  of  the  latter  are  in  great  measure  the  causes  of  the 
former,  and  the  forces  at  work  frequently  produce  a  more  or  less 
violent  quaking  of  the  earth's  surface  before  they  succeed  in  open- 
ing a  channel  of  escape  through  the  mountain's  heart.  One  agency 
of  great  potency,  and  one  whose  work  never  ceases,  has  doubtless 
much  to  do  with  earthquake  action.  In  the  description  of  this  we 
cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  from  "The  Earth's  Beginning"  of 
Sir  Robert  S.  Ball. 

CAUSE    OF    EARTHQUAKES 

"As  to  the  immediate  cause  of  earthquakes  there  is  no  doubt 
considerable  difference  of  opinion.  But  I  think  it  will  not  be 
doubted  that  an  earthquake  is  one  of  the  consequences,  though 
perhaps  a  remote  one,  of  the  gradual  loss  of  internal  heat  from 
the  earth.  As  this  terrestrial  heat  is  gradually  declining,  it  follows 
from  the  law  that  we  have  already  so  often  had  occasion  to  use 
that  the  bulk  of  the  earth  must  be  shrinkingf.  No  doubt  the  dimi- 
nution  in  the  earth's  diameter  due  to  the  loss  of  heat  must  be 
exceedingly  small,  even  in  a  long  period  of  time.  The  cause,  how- 
ever, is  continually  in  operation,  and,  accordingly,  the  crust  of  the 
earth  has  from  time  to  time  to  be  accommodated  to  the  fact  that 


396 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 


the  whole  globe  is  lessening.  The  circumference  of  our  earth  at 
the  equator  must  be  gradually  declining  ;  a  certain  length  in  that 
circumference  is  lost  each  year.  We  may  admit  that  loss  to  be  a 
quantity  far  too  small  to  be  measured  by  any  observations  as  yet 
obtainable,  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  productive  of  phenomena  so  im- 
portant that  it  cannot  be  overlooked. 

"It   follows   from   these  considerations   that   the   rocks  which 
form  the  earth's  crust  over  the   surface  of  the  continents  and  the 


EARTHQUAKE  AT  MESSINA,  1783. 


islands,or  beneath  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  must  have  a  lessening  acreage 
year  by  year.  These  rocks  must  therefore  submit  to  compression, 
either  continuously  or  from  time  to  time,  and  the  necessary  yield- 
ing of  the  rocks  will  in  general  take  place  in  those  regions  where 
the  materials  of  the  earth's  crust  happen  to  have  comparatively 
small  powers  of  resistance.     The  acts  of  compression  will  often, 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  397 

and  perhaps  generally,  not  proceed  with  uniformity,  but  rather 
with  small  successive  shifts,  and  even  though  the  displacements  of 
the  rocks  in  these  shifts  be  actually  very  small,  yet  the  pressures  to 
which  the  rocks  are  subjected  are  so  vast  that  a  very  small  shift 
may  correspond  to  a  very  great  terrestrial  disturbance. 

"  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  there  is  a  slight  shift  in  the  rocks 
on  each  side  of  a  crack,  or  fault,  at  a  depth  of  ten  miles.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  pressure  ten  miles  down  would  be  about 
thirty-five  tons  on  the  square  inch.  Even  a  slight  displacement  of 
one  extensive  surface  over  another,  the  sides  being  pressed  together 
with  a  force  of  thirty-five  tons  on  the  square  inch,  would  be  an 
operation  necessarily  accompanied  by  violence  greatly  exceeding 
that  which  we  might  expect  from  so  small  a  displacement  if  the 
forces  concerned  had  been  of  more  ordinary  magnitude.  On 
account  of  this  great  multiplication  of  the  intensity  of  the  phe- 
nomenon, merely  a  small  rearrangement  of  the  rocks  in  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  in  pursuance  of  the  necessary  work  of  accommodat- 
ing its  volume  to  the  perpetual  shrinkage,  might  produce  an 
excessively  violent  shock,  extending  far  and  wide.  The  effect  of 
such  a  shock  would  be  propagated  in  the  form  of  waves  through, 
the  globe,  just  as  a  violent  blow  given  at  one  end  of  a  bar  of  iron 
by  a  hammer  is  propagated  through  the  bar  in  the  form  of  waves. 
When  the  effect  of  this  internal  adjustment  reaches  the  earth's 
surface  it  will  sometimes  be  great  enough  to  be  perceptible  in  the 
shaking  it  gives  that  surface.  The  shaking  may  be  so  violent  that 
buildings  may  not  be  able  to  withstand  it.  Such  is  the  phenome- 
non of  an  earthquake. 

"  When  our  earth  is  shaken  by  one  of  those  occasional  adjust- 
ments of  the  crust  which  I  have  described,  the  wave  that  spreads 
like  a  pulsation  from  the  centre  of  agitation  extends  all  over  our 


398  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

globe  and  is  transmitted  right  through  it.  At  the  surface  lying 
immediately  over  the  centre  of  disturbance  there  will  be  a  violent 
shock.  In  the  surrounding  country,  and  often  over  great  distances, 
the  earthquake  may  also  be  powerful  enough  to  produce  destruc- 
tive effects.  The  convulsion  may  also  be  manifested  over  a  far 
larger  area  of  country  in  a  way  which  makes  the  shock  to  be  felt, 
though  the  damage  wrought  may  not  be  appreciable.  But  beyond 
a  limited  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  agitation  the  earthquake 
will  produce  no  destructive  effects  upon  buildings,  and  will  not 
even  cause  vibrations  that  would  be  appreciable  to  ordinary  obser- 
vation. 

THE    RADIUS    OF    DISTURBANCE. 

"  In  each  locality  in  which  earthquakes  are  chronic  it  would 
seem  as  if  there  must  be  a  particularly  weak  spot  in  the  earth 
some  miles  below  the  surface.  A  shrinkage  of  the  earth,  in  the 
course  of  the  incessant  adjustment  between  the  interior  and  the 
exterior,  will  take  place  by  occasional  little  jumps  at  this  particular 
centre.  The  fact  that  there  is  this  weak  spot  at  which  small  adjust- 
ments are  possible  may  provide,  as  it  were,  a  safety-valve  for  other 
places  in  the  same  part  of  the  wofM.  Instead  of  a  general  shrink- 
ing, the  materials  would  be  sufficiently  elastic  and  flexible  to  allow 
the  shrinking  for  a  very  large  area  to  be  done  at  this  particular 
locality.  In  this  way  we  may  explain  the  fact  that  immense  tracts 
on  the  earth  are  practically  free  from  earthquakes  of  a  serious  char- 
acter, while  in  the  less  fortunate  regions  the  earthquakes  are  more 
or  less  perennial. 

"  Now,  suppose  an  earthquake  takes  place  in  Japan,  it  origi- 
nates a  series  of  vibrations  through  our  globe.  We  must  here  dis- 
tinguish between  the  rocks — I  might  almost  say  the  comparatively 
pliant  rocks — which  form  the  earth's  crust,  and  those  which  form 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  399 

the  intensely  rigid  core  of  the  interior  of  our  globe.  The  vibrations 
which  carry  the  tidings  of  the  earthquake  spread  through  the  rocks 
on  the  surface,  from  the  centre  of  the  disturbance,  in  gradually 
enlarging  circles.  We  may  liken  the  spread  of  these  vibrations  to 
the  ripples  in  a  pool  of  water  which  diverge  from  the  spot  where  a 
raindrop  has  fallen.  The  vibrations  transmitted  by  the  rocks  on 
the  surface,  or  on  the  floor  of  the  ocean,  will  carry  the  message  all 
over  the  earth.  As  these  rocks  are  flexible,  at  all  events  by  com- 
parison with  the  earth's  interior,  the  vibrations  will  be  correspond- 
ingly large,  and  will  travel  with  vigor  over  land  and  under  sea.  In 
due  time  they  reach,  say  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  they  set  the 
pencil  of  the  seismometer  at  work.  But  there  are  different  ways 
round  the  earth  from  Japan  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  most  direct 
route  being  across  Asia  and  Europe  ;  the  other  route  across  the 
Pacific,  America,  and  the  Atlantic.  The  vibrations  will  travel  by 
both  routes,  and  the  former  is  the  shorter  of  the  two. 

TRANSMISSIONS    OF    VIBRATIONS 

Some  brief  repetition  may  not  here  be  amiss  as  to  the  pro- 
ducts of  volcanic  action,  of  which  so  much  has  been  said  in  the 
preceding  pages,  especially  as  many  of  the  terms  are  to  some  extent 
technical  in  character.  The  most  abundant  of  these  substances  is 
steam  or  water-gas,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  issues  in  prodigious 
quantities  during  every  eruption.  But  with  the  steam  a  great  num- 
ber of  other  volatile  materials  frequently  make  their  appearance. 
Though  we  have  named  a  number  of  these  at  the  beginning  of 
this  chapter,  it  will  not  be  out  of  order  to  repeat  them  here. 
The  chief  among  these  are  the  acid  gases  known  as  hydrochloric 
acid,  sulphurous  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  and 
boracic  acid  ;  and  with  theseacid  gases  there  issue  hydrogen,  nitrogen 


400  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

ammonia,  the  volatile  metals  arsenic,  antimony,  and  mercury, 
and  some  other  substances.  These  volatile  substances  react  upon 
one  another,  and  many  new  compounds  are  thus  formed.  By  the 
action  of  sulphurous  acid  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  on  each  other, 
the  sulphur  so  common  in  volcanic  districts  is  separated  and 
deposited.  The  hydrochloric  acid  acts  very  energetically  on  the 
rocks  around  the  vents,  uniting  with  the  iron  in  them  to  form  the 
yellow  ferric-chloride,  which  often  coats  the  rocks  round  the  vent 
and  is  usually  mistaken  by  casual  observers  for  sulphur. 

Some  of  the  substances  emitted  by  volcanic  vents,  such  as 
hydrogen  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  are  inflammable,  and  when 
they  issue  at  a  high  temperature  these  gases  burst  into  flame  the 
moment  that  they  come  into  contact  with  the  air.  Hence,  when 
volcanic  fissures  are  watched  at  night,  faint  lambent  flames  are  fre- 
quently seen  playing  over  them,  and  sometimes  these  flames  are 
brilliantly  colored,  through  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  cer- 
tain metallic  oxides.  Such  volcanic  flames,  however,  are  scarcely 
ever  strongly  luminous,  and  the  red,  glowing  light  which  is  observed 
over  volcanic  mountains  in  eruption  is  due  to  quite  another  cause. 
What  is  usually  taken  for  flame  during  a  volcanic  eruption  is  simply, 
as  we  have  before  stated,  the  glowing  light  of  the  surface  of  a  mass 
of  red-hot  lava  reflected  from  the  cloud  of  vapor  and  dust  in  the 
air,  much  as  the  lights  of  a  city  are  reflected  from  the  water  vapor 
of  the  atmosphere  during  a  night  of  fog. 

Besides  the  volatile  substances  which  issue  from  volcanic  vents, 
mingling  with  the  atmosphere  or  condensing  upon  their  sides,  there 
are  many  solid  materials  ejected,  and  these  may  accumulate  around 
the  orifices  till  they  build  up  mountains  of  vast,  dimensions,  like 
Etna,  Tenerifl^e,  and  Chimborazo.  Some  of  these  solid  materials 
are   evidently   fragments   of    the  rock-masses,   through  which   the 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  401 

volcanic  fissure  has  been  rent ;  these  fragments  have  been  carried 
upwards  by  the  force  of  the  steam-blast  and  scattered  over  the 
sides  of  the  volcano.  But  the  principal  portion  of  the  solid  mater- 
ials ejected  from  volcanic  orifices  consists  of  matter  which  has  been 
extruded  from  sources  far  beneath  the  surfaoe,  in  highly-heated  and 
fluid  or  semi-fluid  condition. 

It  is  to  these  materials  that  the  name  of  "lavas"  is  properly 
applied.  Lavas  present  a  general  resemblance  to  the  slags  and 
clinkers  which  are  formed  in  our  furnaces  and  brick-kilns,  and  con- 
sist, like  them,  of  various  stony  substances  which  have  been  more 
or  less  perfectly  fused.  When  we  come  to  study  the  chemical  com- 
position and  the  microscopical  structure  of  lavas,  however,  we 
shall  find  that  there  are  many  respects  in  which  they  differ  entirely 
from  these  artificial  products,  they  consisting  chiefly  of  felspar,  or 
of  this  substance  in  association  with  augite  or  hornblende.  In  tex- 
ture they  may  be  stony,  glassy,  resin-like,  vesicular  or  cellular  and 
light  in  weight,  as  in  the  case  of  pumice  or  scoria. 

FLOATING     PUMICE 

The  steam  and  other  gases  rising  through  liquid  lava  are  apt  to 
produce  bubbles,  yielding  a  surface  froth  or  foam.  This  froth  varies 
greatly  in  character  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material  from 
which  it  is  formed.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  lavas  consist  of  a 
mass  of  crystals  floating  in  a  liquid  magma,  and  the  distension  of 
such  a  mass  by  the  escape  of  steam  from  its  midst  gives  rise  to  the 
formation  of  the  rough  cindery-looking  material  to  which  the  name 
of  *'  scoria "  is  applied.  But  when  the  lava  contains  no  ready- 
formed  crystals,  but  consists  entirely  of  a  glassy  substance  in  a 
more  or  less  perfect  state  of  fusion,  the  liberation  of  steam  gives 

rise  to  the  formation  of  the  beautiful  material  known  as  "  pumice." 
26 


402  VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION 

Pumice  consists  of  a  mass  of  minute  glass  bubbles  ;  these  bubbles 
do  not  usually,  however,  retain  their  globular  form,  but  are  elon- 
gated in  one  direction  through  the  movement  of  the  mass  while  it 
is  still  in  a  plastic  state.  The  quantity  of  this  substance  ejected  is 
often  enormous.  We  have  seen  to  what  a  vast  extent  it  was 
thrown  out  from  the  crater  of  Krakatoa.  During  the  year  1878, 
masses  of  floating  pumice  were  reported  as  existing  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Solomon  Isles,  and  covering  the  surface  of  the  sea  to  such 
extent  that  it  took  ships  three  days  to  force  their  way  through 
them.  Sometimes  this  substance  accumulates  in  such  quanti- 
ties along  coasts  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  position 
of  the  shore  within  a  mile  or  two,  as  we  may  land  and  walk  about 
on  the  great  floating  raft  of  pumice.  Recent  deep-sea  soundings, 
carried  on  in  the  Challenger  and  other  vessels,  have  shown  that 
the  bottom  of  the  deepest  portion  of  the  ocean,  far  away  from  the 
land,  is  covered  with  volcanic  materials  which  have  been  carried 
through  the  air  or  have  floated  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 

Fragments  of  scoria  or  pumice  may  be  thrown  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  feet  into  the  atmosphere,  those  that  fall  into  the  crater 
and  are  flung  up  again  being  gradually  reduced  in  size  by  friction. 
Thus  it  is  related  by  Mr.  Poulett  Scrope,  who  watched  the  Vesu- 
vian  eruption  of  1822,  which  lasted  for  nearly  a  month,  that  during 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  outburst  fragments  of  enormous  size  were 
thrown  out  of  the  crater,  but  by  constant  re-ejection  these  were  gra- 
dually reduced  in  size,  till  at  last  only  the  most  impalpable  dust 
issued  from  the  vent.  This  dust  filled  the  atmosphere,  producing 
in  the  city  of  Naples  "  a  darkness  that  might  be  felt."  So  exces- 
sively finely  divided  was  it,  that  it  penetrated  into  all  drawers, 
boxes,  and  the  most  closely  fastened  receptacles,  filling  them  com- 
pletely.     The  fragmentary  materials  ejected  from  volcanoes  are 


VOLCANIC  AND  EARTHQUAKE  ACTION  403 

often  given  the  name  of  cinders  or  ashes.  These,  however,  are  terms 
of  convenience  only,  and  do  not  properly  describe  the  volcanic  mate- 
rial. 

Sometimes  the  passages  of  steam  through  a  mass  of  molten  glass 
produces  large  quantities  of  a  material  resembling  spun  glass. 
Small  particles  of  this  glass  are  carried  into  the  air  and  leave 
behind  them  thin,  glassy  filaments  like  a  tail.  At  the  volcano  of 
Kilauea  in  Hawaii,  this  substance,  as  previously  stated,  is  abundantly 
produced,  and  is  known  as  'Pele's  Hair' — Pele  being  the  name  of 
the  goddess  of  the  mountain.  Birds'  nests  are  sometimes  found 
composed  of  this  beautiful  material.  In  r •scent  years  an  artificial 
substance  similar  to  this  Pele's  hair  has  been  extensively  manufac- 
tured by  passing  jets  of  steam  through  the  molten  slag  of  iron- 
furnaces  ;  it  resembles  cotton-wool,  but  is  made  up  of  fine  threads 
of  glass,  and  is  employed  for  the  packing  of  boilers  and  other 
purposes. 

The  lava  itself,  as  left  in  huge  deposits  upon  the  surface, 
assum.es  various  forms,  some  crystalline,  others  glassy.  The  latter 
is  usually  found  in  the  condition  known  as  obsidian,  ordinarily  black 
in  color,  and  containing  few  or  no  crystals.  It  is  brittle,  and  splits 
into  sharp-edged  or  pointed  fragments,  which  were  used  by  primi- 
tive peoples  for  arrow-heads,  knives  and  other  cutting  implements. 
The  ancient  Mexicans  used  bits  of  it  for  shaving  purposes,  it  having 
an  edge  of  razor-like  sharpness.  They  also  used  it  as  the  cutting 
part  of  their  weapons  of  war. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

The  Great  Lisbon  and  Calabrian  Earthquakes. 

CLOSELY  associated  with  the  volcano  has  always  been  the 
earthquake,  usually  coining  as  the  precursor  of  its  erup- 
tions, often  accompanying-  their  paroxysms.  It  is  due  to 
the  same  causes,  whatever  these  causes  may  be,  the  imprisoned 
forces  within  the  earth  acting  over  great  distances  during  the 
earthquake,  while  they  are  concentrated  within  some  limited  space 
when  the  volcano  begins  its  work.  The  earthquake  is  the  most 
terrible  to  mankind  of  all  the  natural  agencies  of  destruction. 
While  the  volcano  usually  has  a  greater  permanent  effect  upon 
surface  conditions,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  much  less  destructive  to  human 
life,  the  earthquake  often  shaking  down  cities  and  burying  all  their 
inhabitants  in  one  common  grave.  Violent  earthquakes  are  also 
of  far  more  frequent  occurrence  than  destructive  volcanic  erup- 
tions, many  hundreds  of  them  having'  taken  place  during  the 
historic  period. 

While  the  earthquake  is  only  indirectly  connected  with  the 
subject  of  our  work,  it  seems  desirable  to  make  some  mention  of  it 
here,  at  least  so  far  as  relates  to  those  terrible  convulsions  whose 
destructiveness  has  given  them  special  prominence  in  the  history  of 
great  disasters.  Ancient  notable  examples  are  those  which  threw 
down  the  famous  Colossus  of  Rhodes  and  the  Pharos  of  Alexan- 
dria. The  city  of  Antioch  was  a  terrible  sufferer  from  this  afflic- 
tion, it  having  been  devastated  some  time  before  the  Christian  era, 
404 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  C ALA  BRIAN  EARTHQUAKES         405 

while  in  the  year  859  more  than  15,000  of  its  houses  were  destroyed. 
Of  countries  subject  to  earthquakes,  Japan  has  been  an  especial 
sufferer,  in  some  cases  mountains  or  islands  being  elevated  in  asso- 
ciation with  shocks;  in  others,  great  tracts  of  land  being  swallowed 
up  by  the  sea,  The  number  of  deaths  in  some  of  these  instances 
was  enormous. 

Numerous  thrilling  examples  of  the  destructive  work  of  the 
earthquake  might  be  given,  were  this  our  theme.  As  it  has,  how- 
ever, only  a  collateral  connection  with  our  main  subject,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  *to  a  few  striking  examples  of  its  destructive 
action.  In  the  record  of  great  earthquakes,  one  of  the  most 
famious  is  that  which  in  1755  visited  the  city  of  Lisbon,  the  capital 
of  Portugal,  and  left  that  populous  place  in  ruin  and  dire  distress.  It 
may  be  well  to  recall  the  details  of  this  dire  event  to  the  memories 
of  our  readers, 

THE    GREAT    LISBON    EARTHQUAKE 

On  the  night  of  the  31st  of  October,  1755,  the  citizens  of  the 
fair  city  of  Lisbon  lay  down  to  sleep,  in  merciful  ignorance  of  what 
was  awaiting  them  on  the  morrow.  The  morning  of  the  ist  of 
November  dawned,  and  gave  no  sign  of  approaching  calamity. 
The  sun  rose  in  its  brightness,  the  warmth  was  genial,  the  breezes 
gentle,  the  sky  serene.  It  was  All  Saints'  Day — a  high  festival  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  The  sacred  edifices  were  thronged  with 
eager  crowds,  and  the  ceremonies  were  in  full  progress,  when  the 
assembled  throngs  were  suddenly  startled  from  their  devotions. 
From  the  ground  beneath  came  fearful  sounds  that  drowned  the 
peal  of  the  organ  and  the  voices  of  the  choirs.  These  under- 
ground thunders  having  rolled  away,  an  awful  silence  ensued.  The 
panic-stricken  multitudes  were  paralyzed  with  terror.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  ground  began  to  heave  with  a  long  and  gentle  swell, 


4o6 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES 


producing  giddiness  and  faintness  among  the  people.  The  tall 
piles  swayed  to  and  fro,  like  willows  in  the  wind.  Shrieks  of  hor- 
ror rose  from  the  terrified  assembly.  Again  the  earth  heaved, 
and  this  time  with  a  lonofer  and  hiorher  wave.  Down  came  the 
ponderous  arches,  the  stately  columns,  the  massive  walls,  the  lofty 
spires,  tumbling  upon  the  heads  of  priests  and  people.  The  graven 
images,  the  deified  wafers,  and   they  who   had   knelt   in   adoration 


GREAT  EARTHQUAKE  AT  LISBON,  NOV.  i,  1753. 

before  them — the  worshipped  and  the  worshippers  alike — were  in 
a  moment  buried  under  one  undistingfuishable  mass  of  horrible 
ruins.  Only  a  few,  who  were  near  the  doors,  escaped  to  tell  the 
tale. 

It  fared  no  better  with  those  who  had  remained  in  their  dwel- 
lings. The  terrible  earth-wave  overthrew  the  larger  number  of  the 
private  houses   in   the  city,    burying  their    inhabitants  under    the 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES         407 

crumbling  walls.  Those  who  were  in  the  streets  more  generally 
escaped,  though  some  there,  too,  were  killed  by  falling  walls. 

The  sudden  overthrow  of  so  many  buildings  raised  vast 
volumes  of  fine  dust,  which  filled  the  atmosphere  and  obscured  the 
sun,  producing  a  dense  gloom.  The  air  was  full  of  doleful  sounds 
— the  groans  of  agony  from  the  wounded  and  the  dying,  screams 
of  despair  from  the  horrified  survivors,  wails  of  lamentation  from 
the  suddenly  bereaved,  dismal  bowlings  of  dogs,  and  terrified  cries 
of  other  animals. 

In  two  or  three  minutes  the  clouds  of  dust  fell  to  the  ground, 
and  disclosed  the  scene  of  desolation  which  a  few  seconds  had 
wrought.  The  ruin,  though  general,  was  not  universal.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  houses  were  left  standing — fortunately  tenant- 
less — for  a  third  great  earth-wave  traversed  the  city,  and  most  of 
the  buildings  which  had  withstood  the  previous  shocks,  already 
severely  shaken,  were  entirely  overthrown. 

WATER    ADDS    TO    THE    DESTRUCTION 

The  last  disaster  filled  the  surviving  citizens  with  the  impulse 
of  fiieht.  The  more  fortunate  of  them  ran  in  the  direction  of  the 
open  country,  and  succeeded  in  saving  their  lives  ;  but  a  great  multi- 
tude rushed  down  to  the  harbor,  thinking  to  escape  by  sea.  Here, 
however,  they  were  met  by  a  new  and  unexpected  peril.  The 
tide,  after  first  retreating  for  a  little,  came  rolling  in  with  an  immense 
wave,  about  fifty  feet  in  height,  carrying  with  it  ships,  barges  and 
boats,  and  dashing  them  in  dire  confusion  upon  the  crowded  shore. 
Overwhelmed  by  this  huge  wave,  great  numbers  were,  on  its 
retreat,  swept  into  the  seething  waters  and  drowned.  A  vast 
throng  took  refuge  on  a  fine  new  marble  quay,  but  recently  com- 
pleted, which  had  cost  much  labor  and  expense.     This  the  sea-wave 


4o8         GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES 

had  spared,  sweeping  harmless  by.  But,  alas  !  it  was  only  for  a 
moment.  The  vast  structure  itself,  with  the  whole  of  its  living  bur- 
den, sank  Instantaneously  into  an  awful  chasm  which  opened  under- 
neath. The  mole  and  all  who  were  on  it,  the  boats  and  barges 
moored  to  its  sides,  all  of  them  filled  with  people,  were  in  a  moment 
ingulfed.  Not  a  single  corpse,  not  a  shred  of  raiment,  not  a  plank 
nor  a  splinter  floated  to  the  surface,  and  a  hundred  fathoms  of 
water  covered  the  spot.  To  the  first  great  sea-wave  several  others 
succeeded,  and  the  bay  continued  for  a  long  time  in  a  state  of 
tumultuous  aoritation. 

About  two  hours  after  the  first  overthrow  of  the  buildinofs,  a 
new  element  of  destruction  came  into  play.  The  fires  in  the 
ruined  houses  kindled  the  timbers,  and  a  mighty  conflagration, 
urged  by  a  violent  wind,  soon  raged  among  the  ruins,  consuming 
everything  combustible,  and  completing  the  wreck  of  the  city. 
This  fire,  which  lasted  four  days,  was  not  altogether  a  misfortune. 
It  consumed  the  thousands  of  corpses  which  would  otherwise  have 
tainted  the  air,  adding  pestilence  to  the  other  misfortunes  of  the 
survivors.  Yet  they  were  threatened  with  an  enemy  not  less 
appalling,  for  famine  stared  them  in  the  face.  Almost  everything 
eatable  within  the  precincts  of  the  city  had  been  consumed.  A  set 
of  wretches,  morever,  who  had  escaped  from  the  ruins  of  the 
prisons,  prowled  among  the  rubbish  of  the  houses  in  search  of 
plunder,  so  that  whatever  remained  in  the  shape  of  provisions  fell 
into  their  hands  and  was  speedily  devoured.  They  also  broke  into 
the  houses  that  remained  standing,  and  rifled  them  of  their  con- 
tents. It  is  said  that  many  of  those  who  had  been  only  injured 
by  the  ruins,  and  might  have  escaped  by  being  extricated,  were 
ruthlessly  murdered  by  those  merciless  villains. 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  CAL ADRIAN  EARTHQUAKES        409 

The  total  loss  of  life  by  this  terrible  catastrophe  is  estimated 
at  60,000  persons,  of  whom  about  40,000  perished  at  once,  and  the 
remainder  died  afterwards  of  the  injuries  and  privations  they  sus- 
tained. Twelve  htindred  were  buried  in  the  ruins  of  the  oreneral 
hospital,  eight  hundred  in  those  of  the  civil  prison,  and  several 
thousands  in  those  of  the  convents.  The  loss  of  property  amounted 
to  many  millions  sterling. 

WIDE-SPREAD    DESTRUCTION 

Although  the  earth-wave  traversed  the  whole  city,  the  shock 
was  felt  more  severely  in  some  quarters  than  in  others.  All  the 
older  part  of  the  town,  called  the  Moorish  quarter,  was  entirely 
overthrown  ;  and  of  the  newer  part,  about  seventy  of  the  principal 
streets  were  ruined.  Some  buildings  that  withstood  the  shocks 
were  destroyed  by  fire.  The  cathedral,  eighteen  parish  churches, 
almost  all  the  convents,  the  halls  of  the  inquisition,  the  royal  resi- 
dence, and  several  other  fine  palaces  of  the  nobility  and  mansions 
of  the  wealthy,  the  custom-houses,  the  warehouses  filled  with  mer- 
chandise, the  public  granaries  filled  with  corn,  and  large  timber  yards, 
with  their  stores  of  lumber,  were  either  overthrown  or  burned. 

The  king  and  court  were  not  in  Lisbon  at  the  time  of  this 
great  disaster,  but  were  living  in  the  neighborhood  at  the  castle  of 
Belem,  which  escaped  Injury.  The  royal  family,  however,  were  so 
alarmed  by  the  shocks,  that  they  passed  the  following  night  in  car- 
riages out  of  doors.  None  of  the  officers  of  state  were  with  them 
at  the  time.  On  the  following  morning  the  king  hastened  to  the 
ruined  city,  to  see  what  could  be  done  toward  restoring  order,  aid- 
ing the  wounded,  and  providing  food  for  the  hungry. 

The  royal  family  and  the  members  of  the  court  exerted  them- 
selves to  the  uttermost,  the  ladies  devoting  themselves  to  the  prep- 
aration of  lint  and  bandages,  and  to  nursing  the  wounded,  the  sick, 


4IO         GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES 

and  the  dying,  of  whom  the  numbers  were  overwhelming.  Among 
the  sufferers  were  men  of  quality  and  once  opulent  citizens,  who 
had  been  reduced  in  a  moment  to  absolute  penury.  The  kitchens 
of  the  royal  palace,  which  fortunately  remained  s'tanding,  were  used 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  food  for  the  starving  multitudes.  It 
is  said  that  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  a  pound  of  bread  was 
worth  an  ounce  of  gold.  One  of  the  first  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment was  to  buy  up  all  the  corn  that  could  be  obtained  in  the' 
neighborhood  of  Lisbon,  and  to  sell  it  again  at  a  moderate  price 
to  those  who  could  afford  to  buy,  distributing  it  gratis  to  those  who 
had  nothing  to  pay. 

For  about  a  month  afterward  earthquake  shocks  continued, 
some  of  them  severe.  It  was  several  months  before  any  of  the 
citizens  could  summon  courage  to  begin  rebuilding  the  city.  But 
by  degrees  their  confidence  returned.  The  earth  had  relapsed  into 
repose,  and  they  set  about  the  task  of  rebuilding  with  so  much 
energy,  that  in  ten  years  Lisbon  again  became  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  capitals  of  Europe. 

CHARACTERISTICS     OF    THE    LISBON    EARTHQUAKE 

The  most  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  this  earthquake  were 
the  swallowing  up  of  the  mole,  and  the  vast  extent  of  the  earth's 
surface  over  which  the  shocks  were  felt.  Several  of  the  highest 
mountains  in  Portugal  were  violently  shaken,  and  rent  at  their  sum- 
mits ;  huge  masses  falling  from  them  Into  the  neighboring  valleys. 
These  great  fractures  gave  rise  to  immense  volumes  of  dust,  which 
at  a  distance  were  mistaken  for  smoke  by  those  who  beheld  them. 
Flames  were  also  said  to  have  been  observed  :  but  if  there  were 
any  such,  they  were  probably  electrical  flashes  produced  by  the 
sudden  rupture  of  the  rocks. 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES        411 

The  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  convulsed  by  this  earthquake 
is  estimated  by  Humboldt  to  have  been  four  times  greater  than  the 
whole  extent  of  Europe.  The  shocks  were  felt  not  only  over  the 
Spanish  peninsula,  but  in  Morocco  and  Algeria  they  were  nearly  as 
violent.  At  a  place  about  twenty-four  miles  from  the  city  of  Mo- 
rocco, there  is  said  to  have  occurred  a  catastrophe  much  resemb- 
ling what  took  place  at  the  Lisbon  mole.  A  great  fissure  opened  in 
the  earth,  and  an  entire  village,  with  all  its  inhabitants,  upwards  of 
8,000  in  number,  were  precipitated  into  the  gulf,  which  immediately 
closed  over  its  prey. 

EARTHQUAKES    IN    CALABRIA 

Of  the  numerous  other  examples  of  destructive  earthquakes 
which  might  be  chosen  from  Old  World  annals,  it  will  not  be  amiss 
to  append  a  brief  account  of  those  which  took  place  in  Calabria, 
Italy,  in  1783.  These,  while  less  wide-spread  in  their  influence, 
were  much  longer  in  duration  than  the  Lisbon  cataclysm,  since  they 
continued,  at  intervals,  from  the  5th  of  February  until  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  shocks  were  felt  all  over  Sicily  and  as  far  north  as 
Naples,  but  the  area  of  severe  convulsion  was  comparatively  lim- 
ited, not  exceeding  five  hundred  square  miles. 

The  centre  of  disturbance  seems  to  have  been  under  the  town 
of  Oppido  in  the  farther  Calabria,  and  it  extended  in  every  direc- 
tion from  that  spot  to  a  distance  of  about  twenty-two  miles,  with 
such  violence  as  to  overthrow  every  city,  town  and  village  lying 
within  that  circle.  This  ruin  was  accomplished  by  the  first  shock 
on  the  5th  of  February.  The  second,  of  equal  violence,  on  the 
28th  of  March,  was  less  destructive,  only  because  little  or  nothing 
had  been  left  for  it  to  overthrow. 

At  Oppido  the  motion  was  in  the  nature  of  a  vertical  up- 
heaval of  the  ground,  which  was  accompanied  by  the  opening  of 


412         GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALADRIAN  EARTHQUAKES 

numerous  large  chasms,  into  some  of  which  many  houses  were  in- 
gulfed, the  chasms  closing  over  them  again  almost  immediately. 
The  town  itself  was  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  flanked  by 
five  steep  and  difficult  slopes  ;  it  was  so  completely  overthrown  by 
the  first  shock  that  scarcely  a  fragment  of  wall  was  left  standing. 
The  hill  itself  was  not  thrown  down,  but  a  fort  which  commanded 
the  approach  to  the  place  was  hurled  into  the  gorge  below.  It  was 
on  the  flats  immediately  surrounding  the  site  of  the  town  and  on 
the  rising  grounds  beyond  them  that  the  great  fissures  and  chasms 
were  opened.  On  the  slope  of  one  of  the  hills  opposite  the  town 
there  appeared  a  vast  chasm,  in  which  a  large  quantity  of  soil 
covered  with  vines  and  olive-trees  was  engulfed.  This  chasm  re- 
mained open  after  the  shock,  and  was  somewhat  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheatre,  500  feet  long  and  200  feet  in  depth. 

MOST    CALAMITOUS    OF    THE    LANDSLIPS 

The  most  calamitous  of  the  landslips  occurred  on  the  sea-coast 
of  the  Straits  of  Messina,  near  the  celebrated  rock  of  Scilla,  where 
huge  masses  fell  from  the  tall  cliffs,  overwhelming  many  villas  and 
gardens.  At  Gian  Greco  a  continuous  line  of  precipitous  rocks, 
nearly  a  mile  in  length,  tumbled  down.  The  aged  Prince  of  Scilla, 
after  the  first  great  shock  on  the  5th  of  February,  persuaded  many  of 
his  vassals  to  quit  the  dangerous  shore,  and  take  refuge  in  the  fish- 
ing boats — he  himself  showing  the  example.  That  same  night, 
however,  while  many  of  the  people  were  asleep  in  the  boats,  and 
others  on  a  flat  plain  a  little  above  the  sea-level,  another  powerful 
shock  threw  dov/n  from  the  neighboring  Mount  Jaci  a  great  mass, 
which  fell  with  a  dreadful  crash,  partly  into  the  sea,  and  partly 
upon  the  plain  beneath.  Immediately  the  sea  rose  to  a  height  of 
twenty  feet  above  the    level  ground    on    which    the  people   were 


GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES        413 

stationed,  and  rolling  over  it,  swept  away  the  whole  multitude.  This 
immense  wave  then  retired,  but  returned  with  still  greater  violence, 
bringing  with  it  the  bodies  of  the  men  and  animals  it  had  previ- 
ously swept  away,  dashing  to  pieces  the  whole  of  the  boats,  drown- 
ing all  that  were  in  them,  and  wafting  the  fragm.ents  far  inland. 
The  prince  with  1,430  of  his  people  perished  by  this  disaster. 

It  was  on  the  north-eastern  shore  of  Sicily,  however,  that  the 
greatest  am.ount  of  damage  was  done.  The  first  severe  shock,  on 
the  5th  of  February,  overthrew  nearly  the  whole  of  the  beautiful 
city  of  Messina,  with  great  loss  of  life.  The  shore  for  a  considera- 
ble distance  along  the  coast  was  rent,  and  the  ground  along  the 
port,  which  was  before  quite  level,  became  afterwards  inclined 
towards  the  sea,  the  depth  of  the  water  having,  at  the  same  time, 
increased  in  several  parts,  through  the  displacement  of  portions  of 
the  bottom.  The  quay  also  subsided  about  fourteen  inches  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  houses  near  it  were  much  rent.  But 
it  was  in  the  city  itself  that  the  most  terrible  desolation  was  wrought 
— a  complication  of  disasters  having  followed  the  shock,  more  espe- 
cially a  fierce  conflagration,  whose  intensity  was  augmented  by  the 
large  stores  of  oil  kept  in  the  place. 

IMMENSE    DESTRUCTION 

According  to  official  reports  made  soon  after  the  events,  the 
destruction  caused  by  the  earthquakes  of  the  5th  of  February  and 
28th  of  March  throughout  the  two  Calabrias  was  imm.ense.  About 
320  towns  and  villages  were  entirely  reduced  to  ruins,  and  about  fifty 
others  seriously  damaged.  The  loss  of  life  was  appalling — 40,000 
having  perished  by  the  earthquakes,  and  20,000  more  having  sub- 
sequently died  from  privation  and  exposure,  or  from  epidemic  dis- 
eases bred  by  the  stagnant  pools  and  the  decaying  carcases  of  men 


414         GREAT  LISBON  AND  CALABRIAN  EARTHQUAKES 

and  animals.  The  greater  number  were  burled  amid  the  ruins  of 
the  houses,  while  others  perished  in  the  fires  that  were  kindled  in 
most  of  the  towns,  particularly  in  Oppido,  where  the  flames  were 
fed  by  great  magazines  of  oil.  Not  a  few,  especially  among  the 
peasantry  dwelling  in  the  country,  were  suddenly  engulfed  in 
fissures.  Many  who  were  only  half  buried  in  the  ruins,  and  who 
might  have  been  saved  had  there  been  help  at  hand,  were  left  to 
die  a  lingrerinor  death  from  cold  and  hunger.  Four  Ausfustine 
monks  at  Terranuova  perished  thus  miserably.  Having  taken 
refuge  in  a  vaulted  sacristy,  they  were  entombed  in  it  alive  by  the 
masses  of  rubbish,  and  lingered  for  four  days,  during  which  their 
cries  for  help  could  be  heard,  till  death  put  an  end  to  their  sufferings. 
Of  still  more  thrilling  interest  was  the  case  of  the  Marchion- 
ess Spastara.  Having  fainted  at  the  moment  of  the  first  great 
shock,  she  was  lifted  by  her  husband,  who,  bearing  her  in  his  arms, 
hurried  with  her  to  the  harbor.  Here,  on  recovering  her  senses, 
she  observed  that  her  infant  boy  had  been  left  behind.  Taking 
advantage  of  a  moment  when  her  husband  was  too  much  occupied 
to  notice  her,  she  darted  off  and,  running  back  to  the  house,  which 
was  still  standlnor  she  snatched  her  babe  from  its  cradle.  Rushlntr 
with  him  in  her  arms  towards  the  staircase,  she  found  the  stair  had 
fallen — cutting  off  all  further  progress  in  that  direction.  She  fled 
from  room  to  room,  pursued  by  the  falling  materials,  and  at  length 
reached  a  balcony  as  her  last  refuge.  Holding  up  her  infant,  she 
implored  the  few  passers-by  for  help  ;  but  they  all,  intent  on  secur- 
ing their  own  safety,  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  her  cries.  Meanwhile 
the  mansion  had  caught  fire,  and  before  long  the  balcony,  with  the 
devoted  lady  still  grasping  her  darling,  was  hurled  into  the  devour- 
ing flames. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

The  Charleston  and  Other  Earthquakes  of  the 

United  States. 

THE  twin  continents  of  America  have  rivalled  the  record  of 
the  Old  World  in  their  experience  of  earthquakes  since 
their  discovery  in  1492.  The  first  of  these  made  note  of  was 
in  Venezuela  in  1530,  but  they  have  been  numerous  and  often  dis- 
astrous since.  Among  them  was  the  great  shock  at  Lima  in  1746, 
by  which  18,000  were  killed,  and  those  at  Guatemala  in  1773,  with 
33,000,  and  at  Riobamba  in  1797,  with  41,000  victims.  It  will,  how- 
ever, doubtless  prove  of  more  interest  to  our  readers  if  we  pass 
over  these  ruinous  disasters  and  confine  ourselves  to  the  less  des- 
tructive earthquakes  which  have  taken  place  within  our  own  country. 
The  United  States,  large  a  section  of  North  America  as  it 
occupies,  is  fortunate  in  being  in  a  great  measure  destitute  of  vol- 
canic phenomena,  while  destructive  earthquakes  have  been  very 
rare  in  its  history.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  apply  to  the  United 
States  as  it  is,  but  as  it  was.  It  has  annexed  the  volcano  and  the 
earthquake  with  its  new  accessions  of  territory.  Alaska  has  its 
volcanoes,  the  Philippines  are  subject  to  both  forms  of  convulsion, 
and  in  Hawaii  we  possess  the  most  spectacular  volcano  of  the  earth, 
while  the  earthquake  is  its  common  attendant.  But  in  the  older 
United  States  the  volcano  contents  itself  with  an  occasional  puff  of 
smoke,  and  eruptive  phenomena  are  confined  to  the  minor  form  of 
the  geyser. 

415 


4i6  EARTHQUAKES  OE  THE  UN  FEED  STATES 

We  are  by  no  means  so  free  from  the  earthquake.  SHght  move- 
ments of  the  earth's  surface  are  much  more  common  than  many  of 
us  imagine,  and  in  the  history  of  our  land  there  have  been  two  or 
three  earth  shocks  of  considerable  violence.  The  most  destructive 
was  that  of  Charleston  in  1886,  though  the  181 2  convulsion  In  the 
Mississippi  Valley  might  have  proved  a  much  greater  calamity  but 
for  the  fact  that  civilized  man  had  not  then  largely  invaded  its  cen- 
tre of  action. 

As  regards  the  number  of  earth  movements  in  this  country,  we 
are  told  that  in  New  England  alone  231  were  recorded  in  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  while  doubtless  many  slighter  ones  were 
left  unrecorded.  Taking  the  whole  United  States,  there  were  364 
recorded  in  the  twelve  years  from"  1872  to  1883,  and  in  1885  fifty- 
nine  were  recorded,  more  than  two-thirds  of  them  being  on  the 
Pacific  slope.  Most  of  these,  however,  were  very  slight,  some  of 
them  barely  perceptible. 

Confining  ourselves  to  the  earthquakes  important  in  thel'r 
effects,  we  may  first  speak  of  the  shocks  which  took  place  In  New 
England  in  1755,  in  the  year  and  month  of  the  great  earthquake 
at  Lisbon.  On  the  i8th  of  November  of  that  year,  while  the  shocks 
at  Lisbon  still  continued.  New  England  was  violently  shaken,  loud 
underground  explosive  noises  accompanying  the  shocks.  Li  the 
harbors  along  the  Atlantic  coast  there  was  much  agitation  of  the 
waters  and  many  dead  fish  were  thrown  up  on  the  shores.  The 
shock,  indeed,  was  felt  far  from  the  coast,  by  the  crew  of  a  ship 
more  than  two  hundred  miles  out  at  sea  from  Cape  Ann,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

This  event,  however,  was  of  minor  importance,  being  much 
Inferior  to  that  of  18 12,  in  which  year  California  and  the  Mississippi 
Valley  alike   were   affected  by  violent  movements   of   the   earth  s 


EARTHQUAKES  OE  THE  UNFTED  STATES  417 

crust.  The  California  convulsions  took  place  in  the  spring  and 
summer  of  that  year,  extending  from  the  beginning  of  May  until 
September.  Throughout  May  the  southern  portion  of  that  region 
was  violently  agitated,  the  shocks  being  so  frequent  and  severe 
that  people  abandoned  their  houses  and  slept  on  the  open  ground. 
The  most  destructive  shocks  came  in  September,  when  two  Mission 
houses  were  destroyed  and  many  of  their  inmates  killed.  At  Santa 
Barbara  a  tidal  wave  invaded  the  coast  and  flowed  some  dis- 
tance into  the  interior. 

It  may  be  said  here  that  California  has  proved  more  subject  to 
severe  shocks  than  any  other  section  of  our  country.  In  1865 
sharp  tremors  shook  the  whole  region  about  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, many  buildings  being  thrown  down.  Hardly  any  of  brick  or 
stone  escaped  injury,  though  few  lives  were  lost.  In  1872  a  dis- 
turbance was  felt  farther  west,  the  whole  range  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  mountains  being  violently  shaken  and  the  earth  tremblings 
extending  into  the  State  of  Nevada.  The  centre  of  activity  was 
along  the  crest  of  the  range,  and  immense  quantities  of  rock  were 
thrown  down  from  the  mountain  pinnacles.  A  tremendous  fissure 
opened  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountain  range  for  forty 
miles,  the  land  to  the  west  of  the  opening  rising  and  that  to  the 
east  sinking  several  feet.  One  small  settlement,  that  of  Lone  Pine, 
in  Owen's  Valley,  on  the  east  base  of  the  mountains,  was  completely 
demolished,  from  twenty  to  thirty  lives  being  lost.  Luckily,  the 
region  affected  had  very  few  inhabitants,  or  the  calamity  might  have 
been  orreat. 

The  earthquakes   of    181 2   in   the  Mississippi  Valley  began  in 

December,  181 1,  and  continued  at  intervals  until  1813.      As  a  rule 

they  were  more  distinguished  by  frequency  than  violence,  though 

on  several  occasions   they  were   severe   and  had   marked   effects. 
27 


4i8  EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

They  extended  through  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas 
and  Ohio,  and  their  long  continuance  was  remarkable  in  view  of 
the  territory  afTected  being  far  from  any  volcanic  region. 

The  surface  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  was  a  good  deal 
altered  by  these  convulsions — several  new  lakes  being  formed, 
while  others  were  drained.  Several  new  islands  were  also  raised 
in  the  river,  and  duringr  one  of  the  shocks  the  crround  a  little  below 
New  Madrid  was  for  a  short  time  lifted  so  high  as  to  stop  the 
current  of  the  Mississippi,  and  cause  it  to  flow  backward.  The 
ground  on  which  this  town  is  built,  and  the  bank  of  the  river  for 
fifteen  miles  above  it,  subsided  permanently  about  eight  feet,  and 
the  cemetery  of  the  town  fell  into  the  river.  In  the  neighboring 
forest  the  trees  were  thrown  into  inclined  positions  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  many  of  their  trunks  and  branches  were  broken.  It  is 
affirmed  that  in  some  places  the  ground  swelled  into  great  waves, 
which  burst  at  their  summits  and  poured  forth  jets  of  water,  along 
with  sand  and  pieces  of  coal,  which  were  tossed  as  high  as  the  tops' 
of  trees.  On  the  subsidence  of  these  waves,  there  were  left  several 
hundreds  of  hollow  depressions  from  ten  to  thirty  yards  in  diame- 
ter, and  about  twenty  feet  in  depth,  which  remained  visible  for 
many  years  afterward.  Some  of  the  shocks  were  vertical,  and  others 
horizontal,  the  latter  being  the  most  mischievous.  These  earth- 
quakes resulted  in  the  general  subsidence  of  a  large  tract  of 
country,  between  seventy  and  eighty  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south,  and  about  thirty  miles  in  breadth  from  east  to  west.  Lakes 
now  mark  many  of  the  localities  affected  by  the  earthquake  move- 
ments. It  is  only  to  the  fact  that  this  country  was  then  very  thinly 
settled  that  a  great  loss  of  life  was  avoided. 

New  Madrid,  Missouri,  was  a  central  point  of  this  earthquake, 
the  shocks  there  being  repeated  with  great  frequency  for  several 


EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  419 

months.  The  disturbance  of  the  earth,  however,  was  not  confined 
to  the  United  States,  but  affected  nearly  half  of  the  western  hemis- 
phere, ending  in  the  upheaval  of  Sabrina  in  the  Azores,  already 
described.  The  destruction  of  Caracas,  Venezuela,  with  many 
thousands  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  eruption  of  La  Soufriere 
volcano  of  St.  Vincent  Island  were  incidents  of  this  convulsion. 
Dr.  J.  W,  Foster  tells  us  that  on  the  night  of  the  disaster  at  Caracas 
the  earthquake  grew  intense  at  New  Madrid,  fissures  being  opened 
six  hundred  feet  long  by  twenty  broad,  from  which  water  and  sand 
were  flung  to  the  height  of  forty  feet. 

The  most  destructive  of  earthquakes  in  the  United  States  was 
that  which  visited  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  1886,  the  injury 
caused  by  it  being  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  it  passed  through  a 
populous  city.  As  it  occurred  after  many  of  the  people  had  re- 
tired, the  confusion  and  terror  due  to  it  were  greatly  augmented, 
people  fleeing  in  panic  fear  from  the  tumbling  and  cracking  houses 
to  seek  refuge  in  the  widest  streets  and  open  spaces. 

South  Carolina  had  been  affected  by  the  wide-spread  earth- 
quakes of  18 1 2.  These  in  some  cases  altered  the  level  of  the  land, 
as  is  related  in  Lyell's  "  Principles  of  Geology."  But  the  effect 
then  was  much  less  than  in  1886.  Several  sliorht  tremors  occurred 
in  the  early  summer  of  that  year,  but  did  not  excite  much  atten- 
tion. More  distinct  shocks  were  felt  on  August  27th  and  28th,  but 
the  climax  was  deferred  till  the  evening  of  August  31st.  The 
atmosphere  that  afternoon  had  been  unusually  sultry  and  quiet,  the 
breeze  from  the  ocean,  which  generally  accompanies  the  rising 
tide,  was  almost  entirely  absent,  and  the  setting  sun  caused  a  little 
glow  in  the  sky. 

"As  the  hour  of  9.50  was  reached,"  we  are  told,  "there  was 
suddenly  heard  a  rushing,  roaring  sound,  compared  by  some  to  a 


420  EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNTTED  STATES 

train  of   cars  at  no  great  distance,  by  others  to  a  clatter   produced 
by  two  or  more  omnibuses  moving  at  a  rapid   rate  over   a   paved 


RUINOUS  EFFECT    OF  THE  CHARLESTON    EARTHQUAKE, 

street,  by  others  again,  to  an  escape  of  steam  from  a  boiler.  It 
was  followed  immediately  by  a  thumping  and  beating  of  the  earth 
beneath  the  houses,  which  rocked  and  swayed  to  and  fro.     Furniture 


EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  421 

was  violently  moved  and  dashed  to  the  floor  ;  pictures  were 
swune  from  the  walls,  and  in  some  cases  turned  with  their  backs  to 
the  front,  and  every  movable  thing  was  thrown  into  extraordinary 
convulsions.  The  greatest  intensity  of  the  shock  is  considered  to 
have  been  during  the  first  half,  and  it  was  probably  then,  during 
the  period  of  its  greatest  sway,  that  so  many  chimneys  were  broken 
off  at  the  junction  of  the  roof.  The  duration  of  this  severe  shock 
is  thought  to  have  been  from  thirty-five  to  forty  seconds.  The 
impression  produced  on  many  was  that  it  could  be  subdivided  into 
three  distinct  movements,  while  others  were  of  the  opinion  that  it 
was  one  continuous  movement,  or  succession  of  waves,  with  the 
greatest  intensity,  as  already  stated,  during  the  first  half  of  its 
duration." 

Twenty-seven  persons  were  killed  outright,  and  more  than  that 
number  died  soon  after  of  their  hurts  or  from  exposure  ;  many 
others  were  less  seriously  injured.  Among  the  buildings,  the  havoc, 
thoueh  much  less  disastrous  than  has  been  recorded  in  some  other 
earthquakes  in  either  hemisphere,  was  very  great.  "  There  was 
not  a  building  in  the  city  which  had  escaped  serious  injury. 
The  extent  of  the  damage  varied  greatly,  ranging  from  total  demoli- 
tion down  to  the  loss  of  chimney  tops  and  the  dislodgment  of  more 
or  less  plastering.  The  number  of  buildings  which  were  com- 
pletely demolished  and  levelled  to  the  ground  was  not  great ;  but 
there  were  several  hundreds  which  lost  a  large  portion  of  their 
walls.  There  were  very  many  also  which  remained  standing,  but 
so  badly  shattered  that  public  safety  required  that  they  should  be 
pulled  down  altogether.  There  was  not,  so  far  as  at  present  is 
known,  a  brick  or  stone  building  which  was  not  more  or  less 
cracked,  and  in  most  of  them  the  cracks  were  a  permanent  dis- 
fio-urement  and  a  source  of  dano-er  and   inconvenience."     In   some 


422  EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

places  the  railway  track  was  curiously  distorted.  "  It  was  often  dis- 
placed laterally,  and  sometimes  alternately  depressed  and  elevated. 
Occasionally  several  lateral  flexures  of  double  curvature  and  of 
great  amount  were  exhibited.  Many  hundred  yards  of  track  had 
been  shoved  bodily  to  the  south  eastward." 

The  ground  was  fissured  at  some  places  in  the  city  to  a  depth 
of  many  feet,  and  numerous  "  craterlets  "  were  formed,  from  which 
sand  was  ejected  in  considerable  quantities.  These  are  not  un- 
common phenomena,  and  were  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  squirting  of 
water  out  of  saturated  sandy  layers  not  far  below  the  surface  ;  these 
being  squeezed  between  two  less  pervious  beds  in  the  passage  of 
the  earthquake  wave.  The  ejected  material  in  the  Charleston 
earthquake  was  ordinary  sand,  such  as  might  exist  in  many  dis- 
tricts which  had  been  quite  undisturbed  by  any  concussions  of  the 
earth. 

Captain  Dutton  made  a  careful  study  of  the  observations 
collected  by  himself  and  others  concerning  this  earthquake,  and 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Charleston  wave  traveled  with  un- 
usual speed,  for  its  mean  velocity  was  about  1 7,000  feet  a  second. 
The  focus  of  the  disturbance  was  also  ascertained.  Apparently  it 
was  a  double  one,  the  two  centres  being  about  thirteen  miles  apart, 
and  the  line  joining  them  running  nearly  the  same  distance  to  the 
west  of  Charleston.  The  approximate  depth  of  the  principal  focus 
is  given  as  twelve  miles,  with  a  possible  error  of  less  than  two 
miles  ;  that  of  the  minor  one  as  roughly  eight  miles. 

The  Charleston  earthquake  was  felt  as  a  tremor  of  more  or 
less  force  through  a  wide  area,  embracing  900,000  square  miles,  and 
affecting  nearly  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is 
said  that  the  yield  of  the  Pennsylvania  natural  gas  wells  decreased, 
and  that  a  geyser  in  the  Yellowstone  valley  burst  into  action  after 


EARTHQUAKES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  423 

four  years  of  rest.  The  movement  of  the  earth-wave  was  in  gen- 
eral north  and  south,  deflected  to  east  and  west,  and  the  snake-Hke 
fashion  in  which  rails  on  the  railroad  were  bent  indicated  both  a 
vertical  and  a  lateral  force. 

This  earthquake  has  been  attributed  to  various  causes,  but 
geological  experts  think  that  it  was  due  to  a  slip  in  the  crust  along 
the  Appalachian  Mountain  chain.  There  is  a  line  of  weakness 
along  the  eastern  slope  of  this  chain,  characterized  by  fissures  and 
faults,  and  it  was  thought  that  a  strain  had  been  gradually  brought 
to  bear  upon  this  through  the  removal  of  earth  from  the  land  by 
rains  and  rivers  and  its  deposition  in  thick  strata  on  the  sea- 
bottom.  It  is  supposed  that  this  variation  in  weight  in  time  caused 
a  yielding  of  the  strata  and  a  slip  seaward  of  the  great  coastal 
plain.  Professor  Mendenhall,  however,  thinks  it  was  due  to  a 
readjustment  of  the  earth's  crust  to  its  gradually  sinking  nucleus.  In 
fact,  we  know  so  little  of  the  dynamics  of  the  earth  that  all  such 
theories  are  of  very  slight  value,  and  we  may  rest  under  the  assur- 
ance that  no  one  knows  to  what  internal  disturbance  the  Charles- 
ton earthquake  was  due. 


\ 


424 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

The  Verdict  of  Science  on  Mont  Pelee  and 

La  Soufriere. 

IT  seems  only  proper,  from  the  vital  importance  of  the  recent 
disaster  in  Martinique  and  the  intense   interest  which   it  has 

aroused  in  all  civilized  lands,  to  give  Mont  Pelee  and  its 
remarkable  phe.omena  the  last  word  in  our  work.  We  have 
described  fully  the  fatal  events  of  May  8,  giving  numerous  descrip- 
tions by  eye-witnesses  of  the  terrible  disaster.  The  scientists  of 
our  country  also  had  much  to  say  concerning  it,  but  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  they  were  giving  book  knowledge  only,  we  have  not 
repeated  their  statements.  Yet  the  news  of  the  explosion  were 
quickly  followed  by  visits  of  geologists  to  the  scene,  to  investigate 
the  mountain  and  its  doings  with  their  trained  senses  and  educated 
powers  of  observation.  It  is  proposed  to  devote  the  present  chap- 
ter to  an  account  of  their  work. 

The  second  great  explosion  of  Mont  Pelee,  that  of  May  20, 
has  already  been  described  in  connection  with  the  visit  of  the  Poto- 
7nac  and  the  perilous  work  of  recovery  of  the  body  of  Consul  Pren- 
tis.  This  explosion  much  surpassed  in  violence  that  which  destroyed 
St.  Pierre.  For  many  hours  the  detonations  were  so  heavy  that  it 
seemed  as  if  the  island  would  be  shaken  to  its  foundation.  Down 
upon  the  ruins  of  St.  Pierre  fell  great  boulders,  which  battered 
what  was  left  of  the  unfortunate  city  out  of  all  semblance  of  its 
former  self.     Ashes  fell  in  torrents,    and  the  ruins  made  by  the 

425 


426  THE  VERDICT  OE  SCIENCE 

former  explosion  were  covered  until  the  site  of  the  city  resembled 
a  great  gray  plain. 

For  six  hours  Fort  de  France  also  was  literally  bombarded. 
Stones,  many  of  them  incandescent,  rained  upon  the  city  from  the 
clouds.  Houses  were  destroyed  and  fires  were  started  in  many 
quarters.  With  the  stones  fell  hot  mud  and  ashes.  The  air  was 
so  filled  with  volcanic  dust  that  it  was  barely  possible  to  breathe. 
It  seemed  as  if  suffocation  must  be  the  fate  of  all  who  could  not 
be  taken  on  board  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  and  terror  reigned 
supreme.  Clustered  about  the  ships  were  small  boats  filled  with 
natives,  who  begged  to  be  taken  up.  Hundreds,  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  obtain  boats  to  take  them  to  the  ships,  swam  out,  risking 
their  lives  in  the  water  to  avoid  the  danger  which  filled  them  with 
more  terrible  dread.  Great  numbers  of  people  had  already  left  the 
island,  and  on  that  day  of  panic  it  might  have  been  wholly  deserted 
had  this  been  possible. 

On  the  2ist  the  Potomac  returned  to  the  scene  of  disaster,  on 
this  occasion  taking  thither  a  number  of  the  scientists  who  had 
reached  Fort  de  France.  In  this  party  of  experts  were  Pro- 
fessor F.  A.  Jagger,  of  Harvard  ;  Professor  Israel  C.  Russell,  of 
the  University  of  Michigan;  Professor'  Robert  T.  Hill,  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey;  Dr.  E.  O.  Hovey,  of  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  Captain  C.  E.  Borchgrevink, 
the  famous  Antarctic  explorer  and  geologist.  All  these  were  told 
that  they  would  be  allowed  to  land  only  on  condition  that  they  im- 
mediately obeyed  the  signal  which  would  be  given  by  the  Potomac  s 
whistle  should  the  mountain  show  signs  of  danger. 

Leaving  the  landing  place,  the  party  plunged  into  the  ruins, 
and,  separating  into  groups,  wandered  in  and  through  the  streets 
of  the  dead.    Never  was  there  a  scene  of  devasl^ation  more  complete. 


THE   VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  427 

That  there  had  been  a  wind  of  the  fury  of  a  terrible  cyclone 
was  shown  by  the  bent  and  twisted  rods  of  iron  and  the  huge  black 
trunks  of  trees,  several  feet  in  diameter,  which  had  been  torn  from 
the  earth  and  hurled  many  feet  from  where  they  grew.  That  there 
had  been  heat  of  awful  intensity  was  proved  by  the  great  stumps 
of  the  giant  tree  trunks  which  had  been  completely  consumed. 
Gone  was  every  vestige  of  the  great  thick  curtain  of  foliage  that 
covered  the  bluffs  back  of  the  city,  not  even  a  stick  being  left  on 
the  gray  face  of  the  cliffs.  The  splendid  foliage  that  made  the 
botanical  garden  the  pride,  of  the  city  had  been  swept  away  like 
leaves  from  the  full-blown  rose,  leaving  absolutely  nothing  but  bare, 
parched  earth  and  crumbling  rock.  The  fountains  were  brok  m 
and  scattered  and  the  lakes  were  dried  up. 

Against  the  north  side  of  every  wall  were  banked  gray  ashes  as 
snow  is  banked  against  the  houses  during  a  northern  snow  storm. 
Not  a  single  roof  was  left  standing  anywhere.  Inside  the  dust- 
covered  walls  of  the  buildings  were  piled  high  the  debris  of  the 
upper  portions  of  the  same  walls.  There  was  a  monotony  of  wreck 
and  ruin,  varied  in  some  streets  only  by  the  discovery  of  bodies, 
burned  and  unrecognizable,  here  and  there  in  the  houses  and 
courtyards. 

As  the  walls  had  been  thrown  down  in  an  exact  direction  toward 
the  southwest  the  debris  rendered  it  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
streets,  and  it  was  impossible,  even  for  one  who  had  known  the  city 
in  life,  to  point  out  other  than  in  the  most  general  way  the  signifi- 
cant features  of  its  skeleton. 

At  the  very  southern  end  of  the  city,  in  the  suburb  called  Anse, 
in  which  had  lived  many  of  the  wealthy  and  which  had  once  been 
a  perfect  bower  of  trees  and  ferns  and  flowers,  there  was  simply  a 
waste   of  dust,   and   low,   crumbling  walls.      No   living   thing;  no 


428  THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

sound  ;  a  ghastly  expanse  of  gray.  There  had  been  spared  por- 
tions of  many  dwelHngs,  in  which  could  be  found  the  bodies  of 
numerous  persons.  But  masters  and  servants  alike  had  shared  the 
common  lot. 

The  mansion  of  a  retired  planter  named  Leon  Marie,  in  this 
suburb,  was  visited,  the  body  of  a  man  lying  face  downward  being 
found  at  the  gateway.  In  what  had  evidently  been  the  servants' 
quarters  there  had  been  less  destruction  than  in  any  other  house  in 
the  entire  city.  The  bodies  found  here  nearly  all  lay  on  their  faces. 
Near  the  threshold  of  one  room  lay  the  body  of  a  14-year-old 
child,  clasping  the  hand  of  an  old  man.  At  the.  opposite  side  of 
the  room  was  the  body  of  a  colored  woman,  evidently  a  servant. 
A  bowl  of  gruel  lay  before  her,  and  a  pipe  lying  near  had  evidently 
dropped  from  her  mouth.  Near  by  were  the  bodies  of  two  chil- 
dren, one  a  girl  of  five  years  and  one  of  three.  They  were  lying  in 
natural  attitudes  and  were  little  burned.  It  would  seem  as  if  the 
little  party  had  just  finished  the  morning  meal.  At  the  entrance  to 
another  room  were  found  the  bodies  of  three  young  women,  but 
in  this  room  the  fire  had  been  less  merciful,  and  the  bodies  were 
utterly  unrecognizable. 

THE    RUE    VICTOR    HUGO. 

Down  the  Rue  Victor  Hugo,  at  once  the  Broadway  and  the 
Fifth  Avenue  of  the  city,  the  awful  force  had  swept  with  unob- 
structed fury.  They  found  it  but  a  seared  and  blighted  gulley 
between  higher  banks  of  crumbling  dust  and  ashes  like  a  rift  in  a 
pile  of  furnace  slag.  Here  and  there  in  the  debris  were  charred  sec- 
tions of  bones,  showing  at  the  surface  of  the  ash-heap.  The  great 
square  on  which  once  stood  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  house  of  the 
city  government,  was   but  a  gray  waste   on   which   the   dust   had 


THE  VERDICT  OE  SCIENCE  429 

drifted  into  hummocks  covering  pieces  of  crumbled  stone  or  against 
the  eiant  black  trunks — half  charcoal  now — of  what  had  been 
giants  of  the  tropical  jungle  guarding  the  city. 

Fountains,  terraces,  balustrades  had  been  transformed  into 
dust  and  ashes.  Inside  the  low,  fallen  walls  of  the  City  Hall, 
where  the  laws  of  man  had  been  executed,  the  enforcement  of  the 
inscrutable  laws  of  nature  had  left  but  dust.  In  some  of  the  cross 
streets  in  this  central  section  of  the  citv  the  all-consuminor  breath 
of  the  fiery  mouth  to  the  northward,  leveling  a  thousand  walls 
within  a  brief  interval  of  time,  had  not  done  its  work  quite  so 
thoroughly,  and  in  some  of  the  houses  about  this  great  central 
square  a  little  useless  rubbish  could  be  distinguished  from  the  all- 
pervading  ashes. 

On  one  fire-swept  square  was  witnessed  the  first  grateful  sight 
visible  in  that  depressing  walk.  Where  less  than  twenty-four  hours 
before  the  very  breath  of  hell  itself  had  hissed  over  the  gray  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  swept  the  ashes  clear,  peeped  timidly  forth 
from  the  earth  a  tender  shoot  of  green.  It  looked  like  grass,  but 
whatever  its  name  it  was  the  first  sis^n  of  life  in  this  seared  inferno. 
It  was  the  first  courier  of  that  tropical  sea  of  verdure  that  was  des- 
tined at  last  to  sweep  irresistibly  over  the  barren  waste  and  to  heal 
a  scar  on  nature's  face  even  as  long  and  deep  as  this. 

And,  stranger  still,  on  one  of  the  bleak  terraces  ants  had 
already  made  their  appearance  from  the  depth  below,  and  were 
busy  making  explorations  on  their  own  account — the  advance  guard 
of  that  mighty  insect  life  destined  again  to  swarm  over  this  fallen 
city  when  once  the  siege  was  raised. 

The  work  of  exploration  ended  suddenly  when  the  Potomac 
in  the  harbor  blew  her  warning  whistle— blew  it  again  and  again  ! 
Looking  toward  the  base  of  the  mountain,  the  explorers  could  see  the 


430  THE   VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

hideous  elevation  almost  covered  with  leaping  jets  of  steam.  Creep- 
ing down  upon  the  northern  end  of  the  ruins  and  showing  around 
the  edge  of  the  bluff  was  a  great  cloud  of  white  vapor.  Almost  as 
far  as  the  eye  could  reach  northward  alone  the  shore  line  the  white 
lacework  of  steam  was  floatino^  hig-her  and  hiorher.  The  air  seemed 
to  grow  suddenly  more  stifling  and  depressing.  The  sun  became 
hidden  somewhere,  and  there  was  a  flash  of  lightning. 

Over  terrace  and  wall  and  stone  heap  white-clad  explorers 
sought  the  shore  by  leaps  and  bounds,  and,  gaining  the  boats, 
pulled  for  the  Potomac.  The  vessel  had  slipped  her  moorings  and, 
was  slowly  steaming  forward.  She  got  her  boats  aboard,  and 
moving  slowly  northward,  there  was  visible  a  magnificent  view  of 
the  terrifying  and  fascinating  panorama. 

Around  its  top  the  dark  mountain,  4,450  feet  above  them, 
was  curtained  in  a  coat  of  black,  out  of  the  apex  of  which  rolled  a 
mass  of  white  like  an  enormous  cotton  bowl.  On  the  south  side, 
just  below  the  cloud  curtain,  there  yawned  an  awful  chasm  which 
appeared  to  be  a  second  crater,  though  it  was  not  active.  Leading 
down  from  the  active  crater  hidden  above  and  directly  facing  the 
sea  was  a  tremendous  cleft  hundreds  of  feet  deep,  down  which 
could  be  traced  a  great  volume  of  steam.  On  the  black,  precipi- 
tous sides  of  the  mountain,  which  looked  like  an  enormous  heap  of 
cinders,  there  were  at  intervals  depressions  hundreds  of  feet  in  width 
and  length,  as  if  some  Titanic  hind  had  reached  out  and  clawed 
ofreat  masses  from  the  mountain  side.  Boilincr  mud  was  flowinof 
everywhere  over  an  area  probably  twenty-five  square  miles  in  extent. 

Suddenly  the  curtain  of  cloud  above  was  lifted  and  Pelee 
showed  her  teeth.  The  crater  was  almost  circular  slightly  below 
the  top  of  the  peak  and  on  the  westward  side.  The  pit  appeared 
to  be  about  a  half  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  on  the  side  toward  the 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  43 1 

sea  the  rim  was  broken  in  the  cleft  spoken  of  above.  They  could 
look  throuofh  this  cleft  and  see  one  side  of  the  crater's  interior. 
There  was  a  mass  of  jet-black  substance  like  bitumen,  from  which 
were  hissing  geysers  of  white  and  black  vapor.  It  was  as  if  the 
tarry  packing  about  the  axle  of  the  world  had  been  exposed,  smok- 
ing hot. 

Professor  Hovey,  one  of  the  scientific  party  in  tho.  Potomac, 
gave  the  following  estimate  of  what  he  saw.  After  stating  that 
the  column  of  steam  and  dust  on  May  20  rose  to  a  height  of  seven 
miles,  he  continues  :  "  Vast  columns  of  dust  and  stones  up  to  three 
ounces  in  weight  were  rained  on  the  city  of  Fort  de  France,  and 
additional  havoc  was  wrougrht  in  the  ruins  of  St.  Pierre.  A  thick 
stream  of  mud  buried  another  third  of  the  city,  stopping  only  at 
the  seashore.  An  examination  of  the  stones  which  fell  at  Fort  de 
France  showed  them  to  be  a  variety  of  lava  called  hornblende  and 
andesite.  They  were  bits  of  the  old  lava  forming  that  part  of  the 
cone.  There  was  no  pumice  shown  to  me,  but  the  dust  and  lapilli 
all  seemed  to  be  composed  of  comminuted  old  rock. 

"  In  general  the  north  and  south  walls  of  the  buildings  at  St. 
Pierre  were  better  preserved  than  the  east  and  west  walls,  the  latter 
usually  being  razed  to  the  ground.  The  trees,  stanchions,  monu- 
ments and  formerly  erect  objects  were  bent  over  or  had  been 
knocked  down  toward  the  south.  These  facts  show  that  the  city 
was  destroyed  by  a  tornado-like  blast  from  the  mountain.  It  is 
evident  that  the  onrush  of  suffocating  gas  which  wrecked  the 
buildings  asphyxiated  the  people,  fire  then  completing  the  ruin. 

"  This  comes  nearer  to  being  a  sheet  of  flame  than  anything 
heretofore  reported  from  any  volcano.  Mud  was  formed  in  two  ways, 
by  the  mixture  in  the  atmosphere  of  dust  and  condensed  steam, 
and  by  cloudbursts  on  the  upper  dust-covered  slopes  of  the  cone, 


432  THE   VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

washing  down  vast  quantities  of  fine,  light  dust.  No  flow  of  lava 
had  apparently  attended  the  eruption,  the  purely  explosive  action 
apparently  bringing  no  molten  material  to  the  surface. 

NEW    FEATURES    IN     THE    ERUPTION 

"  Except  as  measured  by  the  loss  of  life  and  destruction  of 
property,  the  eruption  cannot  yet  rank  with  the  great  explosions  of 
history.  Mont  Pelee;  however,  may  not  be  done  yet.  The  great 
emission  of  suffocating  gas  and  the  typical  cloudburst,  with  the 
resulting  streams  of  mud,  are  among  the  new  features  which  Pelee 
has  added  to  the  scientific  knowledge  of  volcanoes." 

This  visit  of  scientists  to  St.  Pierre  may  be  fitly  supplemented 
by  an  account  of  the  efforts  of  others  to  reach  the  source  of  the  dis- 
aster, by  ascending  the  perilous  flanks  of  Mont  Pelee.  The  first  man 
to  venture  on  the  fire-breathing  mountain  was  M.  Clerc,  a  planter  of 
Martinique,  and  the  last,  as  already  stated,  to  escape  from  St.  Pierre 
before  the  eruption.  He,  with  a  sugar-works'  engineer,  ascended  to 
a  height  of  1,251  metres.      Here,  he  says  : 

"  We  felt  a  number  of  electric  commotions  and  our  shoes  were 
damaged  by  the  heat.  The  pond  which  was  situated  near  Morne 
la  Croix  is  completely  dried  u.p.  The  iron  cross  which  stood  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  has  been  melted.  Only  the  base  of  the 
masonry,  on  which  the  cross  stood,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  foot 
of  the  cross  can  be  seen. 

"  The  rims  of  the  crater  have  very  much  changed  in  appear- 
ance, and  the  heat  where  we  stood  was  intense  and  the  whole  aspect 
of  the  mountain  was  terrifying.  Stones  fell  around  us  and  we 
picked  up  large  pieces  of  sulphur,  which,  however,  we  were  unable 
to  retain.  The  whole  spot  was  charged  with  electricity,  which 
became  so  violent  that  we  were  obliged  to  retreat. 


THE  VERDICT  OE  SCIENCE  433 

"  Our  descent  from  the  mountain  was  more  difficult  than  our 
ascent.  A  bHnding  rain  of  ashes  fell  upon  us,  and  the  engineer 
was  nearly  killed  by  a  large  stone  which  fell  near  him.  We  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  Basse  Pointe,  on  our  return,  after  having  been  four 
hours  on  the  mountain  under  the  most  dangerous  circumstances." 

Among  the  first  of  the  scientists  to  attempt  the  perilous  ascent 
was  Professor  Robert  T.  Hill,  government  geologist  of  the  United 
States,  and  head  of  the  expedition  sent  by  the  National  Geographi- 
cal Society.      His  account  of  his  experience  is  the  following  : 

"  My  attempt  to  examine  the  crater  of  Mont  Pelee  has  been 
futile.  I  succeeded,  however,  in  getting  close  to  Morne  Rouge. 
At  7  o'clock  Monday  night,  I  witnessed,  from  a  point  near  the  ruins 
of  St.  Pierre,  a  frightful  explosion  from  Mont  Pelee  and  noted 
the  accompanying  phenomena.  While  these  eruptions  continue 
no  sane  man  should  attempt  to  ascend  to  the  crater  of  the  volcano. 

PROFESSOR    hill's    EXPERIENCE 

"  Following  the  salvos  of  detonations  from  the  mountain, 
gigantic  mushroom-shaped  columns  of  smoke  and  cinders  ascended 
into  the  clear  starlit  sky  and  then  spread,  in  a  vast  black  sheet,  to 
the  south  and  directly  over  my  head.  Through  this  sheet,  which 
extended  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  the  crater,  vivid  and  awful 
lightning-like  bolts  flashed  with  alarming  frequency.  They  fol- 
lowed distinct  paths  of  ignition,  but  were  different  from  lightning 
in  that  the  bolts  were  horizontal  and  not  perpendicular. 

"  This  is  indisputable  evidence  of  the  explosive  oxidation  of 
the  hydrogen  and  other  gases  after  they  left  the  crater.  It  is  a  most 
important  observation  and  explains  in  part  the  awful  catastrophe. 
The  phenomenon  is  entirely  new  in  volcanic  history. 

"  I  took  many  photographs,  but  do  not  hesitate  to  acknowledge 
that  I  was  terrified.  But  I  was  not  the  only  person  so  frightened. 
28 


434  THE   VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

Two  newspaper  correspondents  who  were  close  to  Morne  Rouge 
some  hours  before  me  became  scared,  ran  three  miles  down  the 
mountain,  and  hastened  to  Fort  de  France. 

"  Nearly  all  the  phenomena  of  these  volcanic  outbreaks  are 
new  to  science,  and  many  of  them  have  not  yet  been  explained. 
The  volcano  is  still  intensely  active  and  I  cannot  make  any  predic- 
tions as  to  what  it  will  do." 

In  addition  to  this  vivid  description  of  his  actual  study  of  the 
volcanic  phenomena,  Prof.  Hill's  account  o£  his  dangerous  journey 
is  equally  interesting. 

He  left  Fort  de  France  at  i  o'clock  Monday  afternoon.  He 
was  accompanied  by  a  Mr.  Cavanaugh,  an  army  officer  from  Trini- 
dad, and  a  boy  named  Joe,  who  was  to  act  as  interpreter.  The 
party  set  out  on  horseback  and  took  the  direct  north  road  for 
Morne  Rouee.  Between  the  hamlets  of  Deux  Choux  and  Fonds 
St.  Denis  the  party  entered  the  outer  edge  of  the  zone  of  ashes. 
Except  for  occasional  patches  all  the  country  to  this  point  was  green 
and  smiling. 

Upon  reaching  the  Raibaud  plantation,  one  mile  southwest  of 
St.  Pierre,  the  explorers  met  the  clear  line  of  demarcation  of  the 
zone  of  flame  and  destruction,  although  not  of  annihilation.  Mon- 
day night  was  spent  in  a  deserted  house  at  Fonds  St.  Denis,  from 
which  Prof.  Hill  witnessed  and  studied  the  volcanic  eruption  of 
that  night.  At  this  point  the  horses  of  the  party  became  ex- 
hausted. 

Early  the  next  morning  Prof.  Hill  pushed  on  to  Mont  Par- 
nasse,  where  several  people  were  killed  in  the  eruption  of  May  8. 
He  encountered  no  human  beings,  but  he  met  a  number  of 
abandoned  cattle,  which  tried  to  follow  him.  From  Mount  Par- 
nasse  the  explorer  proceeded  to  Morne  Rouge,  where  he  succeeded 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  435 

in  getting  a  number  of  important  photographs.  He  found  that  a 
close  approach  to  Mont  Pelee  was  impossible,  and,  as  his  actual 
position  was  dangerous,  he  started  back  in  a  southerly  direction. 

At  Champs  Flore,  Prof.  Hill's  horse  gave  out  completely,  and 
he  secured  the  services  of  native  guides,  who  led  him  by  wild  m.oun- 
tain  paths  back  to  Fonds  St.  Denis  and  Deux  Choux. 

Tuesday  night  was  spent  at  the  latter  place.  From  this  point 
Prof.  Hill  sent  a  messenger  into  Fort  de  France  with  a  request  that 
a  carriage  be  sent  for  him.  Wednesday  morning  the  professor  left 
Deux  Choux  and  walked  to  within  sixteen  miles  of  Fort  de  France, 
where  he  borrowed  an  old  horse  from  a  negro  and  continued  his 
journey  mounted.  The  carriage  met  him  six  miles  from  Fort  de 
France  and  brought  him  back  to  town,  where  he  arrived  at  i  i  o'clock 
the  next  morning. 

George  J.  Kavanaugh,  a  newspaper  correspondent  who  tried 
to  reach  the  source  of  peril,  set  out  on  his  expedition  on  May  26. 
Leaving  Fort  de  France,  he  reached  the  north  end  of  the  island, 
where  he  souo-ht  in  vain  to  find  a  gruide.  His  not  findine  one,  he 
tells  us,  saved  his  life. 

"  I  slept  that  night  at  Fonds  St.  Denis,  and  when  the  terrific 
explosion  occurred  about  eight  o'clock  I  was  thankful  enough  that 
I  was  not  on  the  mountain  side.  I  saw  the  eruption,  and  without 
attempting  to  describe  it  I  will  say  that  it  was  the  most  wonderful 
display  that  was  ever  placed  before  human  eyes. 

"  Mont  Pelee  stormed  and  thundered  and  sent  ereat  sheets  of 
fire  high  into  the  heavens.  Sulphur  fumes  filled  the  air  and  made 
respiration  difificult.  Below  us  the  sea  was  lashed  into  a, terrible 
fury.  Great  waves  rolled  in  upon  the  island,  although  there  had 
been  almost  a  dead  calm  of  the  atmosphere  during  the  day. 


436  THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

"  This  display  did  not  long  continue.  Mont  Pelee  became  less 
active  before  morning.  Deep  within  its  bowels  there  was  a  struggle, 
but  the  only  evidences  we  at  Fonds  St.  Denis  had  were  the  low 
rumbles,  that  seldom  ceased. 

"  After  breakfast  I  went  on  to  Morne  Rougre.  It  had  been  a 
night  of  terror  in  that  village.  Expecting  to  share  the  fate  that 
had  befallen  St.  Pierre,  the  inhabitants  had  remained  in  the  church 
praying  for  protection.  From  Morne  Rouge  I  continued  my  effort 
to  reach  the  crater  of  Mont  Pelee.  I  explored  the  base  of  the  vol- 
cano and  went  at  least  half-way  to  the  summit. 

"  In  the  valleys  were  many  dead.  I  entered  houses  and  found 
entire  families  destroyed.  Most  of  them  had  died  from  suffocation. 
Men,  women  and  children  had  fallen  while  fleeino-  from  the  danger 
which  threatened  them.  Southeast  of  Pelee  the  valleys  were  almost 
entirely  filled  with  ashes. 

"The  eastern  slope  of  the  volcano  was  absolutely  barren.  It 
was  not  difficult  to  ascend,  and  I  went  up  until  my  way  was  barred 
by  a  deep  fissure.  I  followed  this  fissure,  which  soon  branched 
and  deepened.  It  led  around  the  southern  side  of  the  mountain, 
and  opened,  as  I  could  see,  into  the  crater,  from  which  at  that  time 
nothing  was  coming  except  two  columns  of  smoke,  one  jet  black, 
the  other  yellow.  Later  in  the  day  the  sides  of  the  crater  caved  in, 
and  immediately  great  clouds  of  ashes  were  ejected. 

"As  the  volcano  did  not  show  signs  of  activity  other  than  those 
I  have  described  I  was  in  little  danger  during  the  day,  but  as  I 
remained  too  late  it  was  with  difficulty  that  I  made  my  way  back 
to  Morne  Rouge.  On  Wednesday  I  explored  the  valley  south  of 
Pelee." 

Explorers  of  greater  daring,  or  at  least  of  superior  success, 
were   to  follow.      First   of   these    was   Georg-e    Kennan,   a   famous 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  437 

Siberian  explorer  of  years  ago.  He  started  from  Fort  de  France 
with  a  land  party,  reaching  the  extreme  northern  end  of  the  island 
in  time  to  witness  the  eruption  of  Monday,  May  26.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  28th  an  outburst  of  very  black  smoke  shot  upward  from 
the  crater  and  much  fear  was  entertained  for  the  safety  of  Kennan 
and  his  party.  But  about  10  o'clock  that  morning  M.  Clerc,  who 
had  been  with  him,  reached  Fort  de  France  and  announced  that 
the  party  were  safe  in  a  plantation  at  the  north  end  of  the  island. 

WHAT    M.  CLERE    WITNESSED 

Mr.  Clerc  had  a  very  interesting  story  to  tell.  He  said  :  "We 
got  around  the  mountain  and  reached  the  new  crater,  not  far  from 
Ajoupa  Bouillon.  We  discovered  that  it  had  broken  out  at  the 
very  head  of  the  river  Falaise  and  about  200  yards  from  the  high 
road.  Our  party  rode  directly  to  the  edge  of  the  crater,  as  it  was 
then  quiescent.  We  saw  that  a  great  slice  of  the  mountain  had 
fallen,  leaving  exposed  a  perpendicular  cliff.  In  this  cliff  were  five 
huge  tunnels,  which  were  not  smoking.  The  crater  is  a  great,  slop- 
ing oval  depression,  from  which  smoke  issues,  as  it  does  from  the 
great  crater,  with  the  exception  that  here  and  there  were  few  ashes 
in  the  smoke.  The  river  Falaise  is  boiling  hot  and  so  muddy  that 
one  quart  of  water  weighed  four  pounds.  Volcanic  stones  of  the 
nature  of  pumice  float  in  the  water. 

Mr.  Kennan  witnessed  the  explosion  of  Monday  night  and 
was  much  interested  in  the  phenomena.  The  explosion  was  accom- 
panied at  intervals  by  bright  light  which  lasted  for  half  an  hour  at 
a  time.  This  light  was  steady  and  illuminated  the  entire  mountain 
top.  Prof.  Hill  says  he  did  not  see  the  light.  I  left  Mr.  Kennan 
and  his  party  in  good  health  and  in  safety.  They  seemed  to  be  in 
no  hurry  to  come  back  to  Fort  de  France." 


438  THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

On  May  24  the  steamer  Fontabclle  reached  Fort  de  France,  her 
passengers  including  several  scientists,  one  of  them  being  Pro- 
fessor Angelo  Heilprin,  President  of  the  Geographical  Society  of 
Philadelphia  and  a  representative  in  this  journey  of  the  National 
Geographical  Society  of  America,  We  speak  of  him  here  in  par- 
ticular, in  recognition  of  his  daring  and  success  in  being  the  first 
to  reach  the  edge  of  the  crater  of  Mont  Pelee.  He  left  Fort  de 
France  on  Thursday,  May  29,  at  the  head  of  a  party  organized  by 
himself  and  Consul  Ayme.  Friday  was  spent  in  studying  the 
newly  formed  craters  on  the  north  flank  of  the  mountain.  Satur- 
day morning  Professor  Heilprin  determined  to  attempt  the  ascent 
to  the  top  of  the  crater,  and,  with  this  purpose  in  view,  he  set  oiit 
at  5  o'clock  in  company  with  Mr.  Leadbetter  and  three  negro  guides. 

The  party  proceeded  on  mules  to  an  altitude  of  700  metres,  the 
ancient  line  of  vegetation.  From  this  point  Heilprin  continued  on 
foot,  leaving  the  mule  that  had  carried  him  up  the  steep  hog-back 
to  the  tree  line.  Upon  reaching  the  lip  of  the  old  crater  at  Lake 
Palmiste,  a  fierce  thunderstorm  prevented  further  progress,  and 
after  remaining  for  some  time  in  that  perilous  position,  he  was 
obliged  to  descend,  after  an  attempt  of  extreme  danger. 

His  journey  down  the  side  of  the  mountain  was  fully  as  peril- 
ous as  the  ascent.  Mont  Pelee  seemed  to  resent  the  intrusion  of 
a  puny  human  being  into  her  most  awful  precincts,  and  belched  out 
huge  volumes  of  steam,  ashes  and  boiling  hot  mud.  The  daring 
adventurer  was  nearly  suffocated  by  the  choking  vapors  he  had 
breathed,  and  was  thickly  coated  with  volcanic  mud. 

The  Professor  made  the  important  discovery  that  the  crater  at 
the  head  of  the  river  Fallaise  has  synchronous  eruptions  with  the 
crater  at  the  summit  of  the  summit  of  the  volcano,  and  that  it 
ejects  precisely  the  same  matter  at  such  times.     The  river  Fallaise 


THE  VERDICT  OE  SCIENCE  439 

crater  and  the  crater  at  the  summit  showed  durino-  Professor  Heil- 
prin's  visit  a  new  phenomenon.  Mud  was  thrown  up  in  high 
columns.  Heretofore  the  mud  had  bubbled  or  boiled  out  and 
flowed  downward  in  huge  streams.  In  the  course  of  one  eruption 
of  the  river  Fallaise  crater  an  enormous  mass  of  intensely  hot  mud 
was  ejected.  This  flow  reached  the  rum  distillery  on  the  Vive 
plantation  and  extinguished  all  the  fires  there. 

On  the  following  day,  Sunday,  May  25,  Professor  Heilprin 
again  ascended  the  mountain,  this  time  in  company  with  George 
Kennan  and  one  of  his  associates,  Mr.  Varian.  No  accident  oc- 
curred in  the  dangerous  enterprise,  though  the  explorers  were 
exposed  to  great  hardships  and  many  dangers.  Mr.  Kennan's 
account  of  the  daring  venture  is  as  follows.  It  begins  with  a  well- 
deserved  eulogy  of  his  comrade  : 

"  I  must  preface  all  I  have  to  say  by  paying  the  highest  possi- 
ble tribute  to  Professor  Heilprin.  He  is  modest  and  brave,  a 
superb  mountaineer,  and  the  nerviest  and  pluckiest  man  I  ever 
knew.  Professor  Heilprin's  first  ascent  of  Mont  Pelee  last  Satur- 
day with  Mr.  Leadbetter  was  a  most  awful  experience,  yet  he 
started  a  second  time  undaunted. 

"  Five  of  us  started  for  the  crater  of  the  volcano  last  Sunday, 
and  three  of  us  reached  our  objective.  We  crossed  Lake  Palmiste, 
which  is  now  dry  and  full  of  boulders  and  huge,  ragged  rocks  of 
trachyte,  rhyolite  and  andesite.  We  then  climbed  on  up  and 
reached  the  edge  of  the  crater.  We  found  it  to  be  a  huge  chasm, 
or  crevasse,  with  perpendicular  walls. 

*'We  could  not  see  down  into  the  crater  more  than  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet ;  it  was  like  looking  into  a  white-hot  furnace. 
The  chasm  opens  out  toward  St.  Pierre,  but  the  enormous  columns 
of  steam  cut  off  the  view  in  that  direction.     There  were  hundreds 


440 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 


of  fumaroles  all  about  us.  What  was  thought  to  be  a  cone  of 
cinders  in  the  crater  was  learned  in  reality  to  be  a  huge  pile  of 
gigantic  rocks  piled  up  one  on  the  other.  There  were  crusts  of 
sulphur  everywhere,  but  we  saw  no  ashes  or  cinders  in  or  near  the 
crater.  The  whole  vast  bed  of  the  old  crater  and  of  Lake  Pal- 
miste  was  emitting  steam  through  thousands  of  orifices. 

"The  ascent  to  Lake  Palmiste  is  up  a  long  and  sharp  incline 
covered  with  ashes.  These  had  been  soaked  by  the  rain,  and  as 
we  proceeded  there  were  terrifying  gorges  full  of  hot,  volcanic 
debris  on  each  side  of  us.  Every  footstep  dislodged  ashes,  and 
our  footing  was  most  insecure.  There  were  also  clouds  of  sulphur^ 
ous  smoke,  through  which  the  sunlight  swept  at  intervals. 

"The  ascent  was  the  most  terrifying  experience  of  my  life,  yet 
Professor  Heilprin,  the  previous  day,  had  sat  enveloped  in  darkness 
on  the  lip  of  what  was  once  Lake  Palmiste,  and  had  descended  the 
horrible  area  in  a  thunder  storm  of  volcanic  clouds  and  almost 
complete  darkness.      Mr.  Leadbetter  was  with  him," 

Mr.  Kennan's  party  had  previously  gone  through  a  dangerous 
experience.  On  the  night  of  the  26th  they  witnessed  a  frightful 
eruption  of  the  volcano,  and  another  occurred  on  the  morning  of 
the  28th,  so  violent  that  Vive,  the  plantation  at  which  they  were, 
was  declared  to  be  untenable,  and  was  abandoned  for  a  location 
named  Acier.      He  says  : 

"  The  29th  we  spent  at  Morne  Rouge  questioning  eye-wit- 
nesses of  the  catastrophe  of  May  8.  The  30th  we  tried  to  ascend 
to  the  crater  from  this  side,  along  the  Cale  Bass  divide.  From  the 
crest  of  the  divide  we  had  a  wonderful  view  into  the  awful  Fallaise 
Valley,  which  was  a  tremendous,  seething  gorge  of  terrible  volcanic 
activity.  We  were  driven  back  by  a  severe  thunderstorm,  and  very 
nearly  lost  each  other  in  the  dense  volcanic  clouds.      We  planted  a 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  441 

record  stake  at  the  highest  point  we  reached,  on  which  we  inscribed 
our  names. 

'  While  at  Morne  Rouo-e  we  saw  and  interrogated  Raoul  Sar- 
tout,  the  man  who  was  rescued  from  the  dungeon  in  St.  Pierre,  and 
who  is  the  only  real  survivor  of  the  city. 

"  On  the  31st  we  returned  to  Acier,  and  at  half  past  6  o'clock 
in  the  evening  Prof.  Heilprin  and  Mr,  Leadbetter  came  down  from 
their  splendid  attempt  to  reach  the  rim  of  the  crater.  Prof.  Heil- 
prin said  that  he  and  Mr.  Leadbetter  had  been  enveloped  in  volcanic 
clouds  and  a  thunderstorm  and  that  they,  therefore,  did  not  reach 
the  actual  edge  of  the  crater  itself.  I  fully  realized  Prof.  Heilprin's 
danger  the  next  day  when  we  made  the  ascent.  He  is  a  fearless 
scientist,  and  Mr.  Leadbetter  also  deserves  the  highest  praise. 

"On  Sunday,  the  first  of  June,  the  five  members  of  our  party, 
Prof.  Heilprin,  Mr.  Leadbetter,  Mr.  Jaccaci,  Mr.  Varian  and  myself, 
started  to  make  the  ascent.  Mr.  Jaccaci  came  down  with  mountain 
fever  on  the  arete  and  Mr.  Leadbetter  became  exhausted.  They 
did  not  reach  the  crater.  June  2  we  rested  and  went  to  La  Trinite, 
and  to-day,  the  3rd,  we  are  here  [at  Fort  de  France]  safe  and 
sound." 

PROFESSOR    heilprin's    NARRATIVE 

Though  we  have  given  the  story  of  Prof.  Heilprin's  exploit  as 
told  by  others,  it  is  not  amiss  to  let  him  speak  for  himself.  He 
tells  us  : 

"  I  left  Fort  de  France  with  Mr.  Leadbetter  the  mornino-  of 
May  29  and  reached  Acier  at  7  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  the  30th. 
We  visited  Vive  and  Basse  Pointe.  The  latter  place  has  been 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  overflow  of  the  local  streams.  Mud 
flowing  into  the  beds  of  the  rivers  there  caused  this  overflow. 
Many  important  businesses  are  seriously  menaced  by  the  floods. 


442  THE   VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

"May  31  we  made  our  first  ascent  of  the  volcano.  We  left 
Acier  at  half-past  five  and  Vive  at  half-past  7  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  party  consisted  of  Mr.  Leadbetter  and  myself  and  three 
colored  boys.  We  were  on  mule-back.  At  an  altitude  of  700 
meters  we  began  the  ascent  of  the  arete.  We  passed  along  its 
east  side  and  slightly  to  the  north  of  the  mountain. 

"  We  arrived  at  the  lip  of  the  old  crater,  the  former  site  of 
Lake  Pahniste,  at  11  o'clock.  Here  it  began  raining.  Rain  clouds 
and  the  clouds  from  the  volcano  enveloped  us  and  we  could  not 
see  ten  feet.  A  terrific  thunderstorm  had  begun,  and  we  sat  on 
the  crater  for  some  time,  speculating  whether  the  detonations  we 
heard  were  of  thunder  or  from  the  volcano.  As  we  afterward 
found  the  river  Fallaise  to  be  boiling,  the  detonations  were  prob- 
ably volcanic. 

COMPASS    wouldn't    WORK 

"  We  could  not  tell  how  near  we  were  to  the  crater  as,  either 
from  local  attraction  or  the  electric  conditions,  our  compass  refused 
to  work.  Its  variation  was  about  20  degrees  to  the  eastward,  but 
later  we  found  that  it  acted  normally  at  the  lip  of  the  new  crater. 
The  colored  boys  with  us  were  horribly  scared. 

"  We  finally  groped  our  way  down  that  awful  arete  through 
gloomy  clouds  of  rain  and  amid  great  electric  discharges.  At  every 
step  we  dislodged  the  rain-soaked  ashes,  and  were  in  danger  of 
being  precipitated  down  the  hideous  gorges  on  either  side. 

"  The  extreme  top  of  the  volcano  is  covered  with  cinders, 
scoriae,  boulders,  and  angular  rocks,  which  had  been  ejected  from 
the  crater.  Further  down  the  mountain  is  covered  with  ashes  and 
mud,  and  these  are  thick  on  the  arete.  On  our  way  down  we  saw 
the  river  Fallaise  rushing  along  with  great  velocity  and  full  of 
steam  and  of  mud.  We  reached  Acier  well  but  soaked,  caked  with 
mud  and  very  much  disappointed. 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  443 

"At  Acier  we  met  George  Kennan  and  his  party  and  deter- 
mined to  attempt  a  second  ascent  the  next  day,  June  i.  The 
ascent  made  this  day  with  Mr.  Kennan  was  more  trying  and  diffi- 
cult than  the  one  I  had  previously  made  \.  ith  Mr.  Leadbetter. 
The  day  was  intensely  hot  and  it  was  raining.  When  we  reached 
the  old  crater,  I  was  again  enveloped  in  vapor. 

'  The  temperature  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Palmiste,  taken  three 

inches  below  the   surface,  was   124  degrees  Fahrenheit.      Between 

lifts  in  the  clouds  of  vapor   we  could  see  the  new  crater,  of  which 

Mr.  Varian  made  an  excellent  sketch.      Suddenly  the  vapor  cleared 

.away  and  we  made  a  dash  forward. 

"  We  reached  the  edge  of  the  new  crater,  and  from  where  we 
stood  we  could  have  dropped  stones  into  the  white  mass  within. 
The  new  crater  is  a  crevasse  running  north  and  south,  and  expand- 
ing into  a  bowl.  This  crevasse  nearly  rifted  the  mountain  ;  it  runs 
transversely  to  the  old  crater,  and  might  be  called  a  hugh  gash. 
From  it  volcanic  material  has  been  freely  erupted. 

"  As  we  stood  on  the  &(\g&  of  the  crater  a  sublime  spectacle 
began.  I  now  have  some  conception  of  what  is  going  on  inside 
the  earth,  and  have  been  a  spectator  of  Nature's  secret  interior 
work.  We  were  assailed  with  noise.  Far  below  there  was  a 
hissing  of  steam  like  that  of  a  thousand  locomotives,  as  well  as 
violent  detonations. 

"  The  principal  output  of  the  crater,  while  we  were  there,  was 
steam.  The  phenomena  were  limited  and  were  not  essentially 
dififerent  from  those  of  other  volcanoes  in  action.  Positive  assur- 
ance was  gained  that  no  molten  matter  has  flowed  over  the  lip 
of  the  new  crater.  Several  observations  taken  with  the  aneroid 
barometer  showed  that  the  height  of  Mont  Pelee  was  not  changed. 


444 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 


"  I  agree  with  Prof.  Robert  T.  Hill,  the  geologist  of  the 
United  States  Goverment,  that  Mont  Pelee  has  erupted  no  lava, 
and  that  there  has  been  no  cataclysm  nor  any  serious  topographical 
alterations.  No  cinder  cone  was  visible  in  the  crater;  what  was 
taken  for  a  cone  is  a  pile  of  ejected  rocks.  Perhaps  the  bottom  of 
the  new  crater  may  contain  a  cinder  cone,  but  we  could  see  down 
only  about  i  50  or  200  feet. 

"  I  believe,  however,  that  the  crater  is  very  much  deeper  than 
this.  I  do  not  know  the  exact  materials  of  which  the  pile  of  rocks 
in  the  centre  of  the  crater  is  composed,  but  it  seems  to  be  matter 
which  has  been  ejected  from  the  crevasse.  This  pile  of  rocks  has 
no  vent.  I  think  Mont  Pelee  has  freed  itself  from  the  interior  press-* 
ure,  and  that  the  volcano  is  not  liable  to  further  violent  eruption. 
It  is  not  safe,  however,  to  make  predictions  about  volcanoes. 

AN    UNIQUE    ERUPTION 

"The  eruption  of  Mont  Pelee  of  May  8  was  unique  in  that  it 
resulted  in  the  greatest  destruction  of  life  and  property  ever 
known  by  direct  agency  of  a  volcano.  The  phenomenon  of  the 
explosion  of  flaming  gases  is  probably  new,  but  a  careful  study  of 
observations  is  necessary  before  an  opinion  can  be  reached. 

"The  electrical  phenomena  are  also  new.  They  probably  did 
not  play  the  chief  role  in  the  destruction  of  St.  Pierre,  but  were 
developed  by  and  aided  the  other  forces.  I  have  specimens  which 
show  the  effect  of  the  bolts  of  lightning.  The  latter  were  small 
and  intense,  and  penetrated  within  the  houses  of  the  city.  For 
rapidity  of  action  and  for  lives  destroyed,  Mont  Pelee  holds  the 
record  amonof  volcanoes. 

"When  we  got  back  to  Acier  we  found  Mr.  Jaccaci  and  Mr. 
Leadbetter,  who   had  stopped   on   the   arete   and  had   descended 


THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE  445 

before  us.  Early  in  the  morning  of  June  2  Mr.  Kennan  and  his 
party  left  for  Fort  de  France.  Mr.  Leadbetter  and  I  went  to 
Morne  Rouge  to  study  topographical  details,  and  from  there  we 
returned  to  Acier  and  Fort  de  France." 

We  have  given  considerable  space  to  the  story  of  Prof. 
Heilprin's  daring  venture,  alike  from  its  daring  character  and  the 
great  interest  attaching  to  its  results.  The  eulogistic  accounts  given 
by  his  fellow  adventurers  might  have  sufficed,  but  his  own  story 
is  so  simple,  modest  and  direct  that  it  seemed  only  just  to  him  to 
give  it  place.  This  is  especially  called  for  in  view  of  the  high  esti- 
mate put  upon  his  gallant  achievement  by  Americans  in  general, 
and  the  position  that  is  accorded  him  as  one  of  the  chief  heroes  of 
the  Mont  Pelee  eruption.  It  may  be  said  further  that  he  is  of 
opinion  that  the  volcano  has  done  its  worst,  and  will  gradually  sink 
back  into  repose,  with  occasional  outbursts,  diminishing  in  inten- 
sity. This  opinion  is  indicated  by  him  in  his  cablegrams  to  the 
Philadelphia  Press,  the  substance  of  which  we  here  reproduce  : 

"  I  have  just  returned  from  a  six  days'  exploration  of  Mont 
Pelee.  A  careful  reconnoissance  of  the  summit  of  the  volcano 
made  during  the  two  ascents  of  Saturday,  May  31,  and  Sunday, 
June  I,  reveals  that  the  main  crater  is  still  in  a  boisterous  condi- 
tion. Yet,  though  this  is  the  situation,  my  examination  of  the 
actual  state  of  things  on  the  spot  convinces  me  that  there  is  no 
impending  repetition  of  the  earlier  disaster,  the  outbreak  that  over- 
whelmed St.  Pierre  on  May  8.  In  consequence  I  am  pacifying  the 
inhabitants  and  encouraging  them  to  return  to  work,  which  many 
are  already  doing. 

"  The  volcano  itself  is  practically  intact,  but  little  changed,  and 
vast  mud-flows  are  the  chief  contribution  of  its  craters.  The  ereat 
cataclysm,  the  absolute  destruction  of  St.  Pierre,  was  a  catastrophe 


446  THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

without  precedent,  unparalleled  in  volcanic  outbreaks,  and  the  sud- 
denness and  completeness  of  the  death-dealing  agency  suggest  that 
it  was  probably  an  inconceivably  violent  blast  of  inflammable  gases, 
with  atmospheric  dissociation.  The  correspondence  between  the 
eruptions  from  Mont  Pelee  on  this  island  (Martinique)  and  the 
eruption  of  La  Soufriere  on  St.  Vincent  establishes  beyond  ques- 
tion the  sympathetic  relation  of  the  Antillean  volcanic  circuit,  of 
which  these  two  islands  are  a  part,  the  volcanic  crescent  beginning 
at  Saba  and  endincr  at  Grenada. 

THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    QUESTION 

"  My  study  of  what  has  happened  here  throws  added  light  on 
the  Isthmian  Canal  question.  The  catastrophism  is  without  paral- 
lel. Its  relation  with  conditions  at  St.  Vincent  establishes  a  long 
volcanic  circuit,  whose  existence  should  dispose  of  Nicaragua  as  a 
canal  route.  The  reasons  which  lead  to  this  conclusion  as  to  the 
canal  route  are  these  :  The  conditions  here  and  at  St.  Vincent 
establish  conclusively  an  increase,  and  not  a  decrease,  of  volcanic 
phenomena  in  the  Caribbean  Gulf  region. 

"  An  absolutely  new  form  of  destructivity  has  been  exhibited 
here.  The  destruction  has  been  not  by  lava,  ash  or  earthquake 
but  by  explosive  gases  or  steam,  shattering  everything  as  if  blown 
from  a  cannon.  For  seven  miles  massive  masonry  villages  have 
been  overwhelmed  in  all  directions  by  terrific  mud  and  rock.  The 
loss  is  incredible.  I  have  visited  St.  Vincent,  ninety  miles  away, 
and  find  the  phenomena  there  identical  with  a  broader  area  of 
destruction.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  interrelation  of 
both  eruptions,  that  at  St.  Vincent  preceding  by  one  day  that  at 
Martinique.  The  facts  all  prove  the  broad  reach  of  volcanic  force, 
and  that  reliance  for  the  protection  of  a  canal  running  through  a 


THE   VERDICT  OE  SCIENCE  447 

volcanic  country  like  Nicaragua  on  the  localization  of  volcanic 
force,  its  assumed  dormancy,  or  the  resistability  of  the  canal  to  its 
force  is  absurd, 

"  Instead  of  going  to  Precheur  to  study  the  phenomena  on 
the  west  flank  of  Pelee,  I  went  over  to  St.  Vincent  to  examine  into 
the  character  of  the  eruption  from  the  Great  Soufriere,  whose  first 
outburst  on  May  7  was  rather  lost  sight  of  in  the  greater  disaster 
in  Martinique  on  May  8.  I  find  the  phenomena  attending  the  erup- 
tions of  the  Soufriere  identical  with  those  that  have  been  noted  in 
Pelee's  outbreaks.  On  my  return  I  found  Pelee  again  boisterous. 
Vast  mudflows  were  pouring  seaward  down  the  eroded  slopes,  and 
the  mountain  was  surrounded  by  a  tremendous  cloud  of  steam  and 
ash.  The  volcanic  disturbances  causing  a  three-foot  rise  of  the 
sea,  renewed  the  panic  and  people  were  again  in  a  state  of  great 
fear,  but  I  am  still  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  no  impending  danger 
of  a  repetition  of  the  earlier  catastrophe." 

A  few  words  in  relation  to  the  St.  Vincent  volcano  of  La 
Soufriere,  the  rival  in  destruction  of  Mont  Pelee,  and  we  have 
done.  This  mountain  seemed  more  inclined  to  sink  quickly  to  rest 
than  its  Martinque  counterpart.  Steam  continued  to  rise  from  its 
crater,  with  seeming  fire  flakes  nightly,  but  with  no  strong  evidence 
of  a  return  of  its  perilous  activity.  In  addition  to  Professor  Heil- 
pin,  a  party  of  scientists  from  Martinque  visited  St.  Vincent  and 
ascended  the  practically  quiescent  volcano.  The  party  consisted 
of  Professor  Jagger,  the  geologist  of  Harvard  ;  Dr.  Hovey,  assist- 
ant curator  of  the  musuem  of  natural  history  in  New  York,  and 
Mr.  Curtis.  They  were  accompanied  by  a  local  planter,  McGregor 
Macdonald. 

The  explorers  succeeded  in  reaching  the  summit  of  the  Sou- 
friere from  the  western  side.     The  ascent  was  exceedingly  difficult, 


448*  THE  VERDICT  OF  SCIENCE 

owing  to  the  mud  that  covered  the  mountain  side,  but  the  ground 
was  cool.  After  a  tiresome  scramble  up  the  slippery  hill,  the  rim 
of  the  old  crater  was  reached  at  about  midday.  There  was  no  trace 
whatever  of  vegetation,  but  there  had  been  no  change  in  the  topo- 
graphical outlines  of  the  mountain  on  that  side,  and  the  old  crater 
retained  its  tragic  beauty.  The  great  mass  of  water  that  formerly 
lay  serenely  about  500  feet  below  the  rim  of  the  crater  had  disap- 
peared, and  the  crater  appeared  to  be  a  dreadful  chasm  over  2,000 
feet  deep.  With  the  aid  of  a  glass,  water  was  made  out  at  the 
bottom  of  this  abyss. 

The  party  did  not  venture  across  the  summit  of  the  Soufriere 
to  inspect  the  new  crater,  which  was  then  emitting  a  little  vapor, 
for  the  ground  in  that  direction  looked  dangerous.  Apparently 
the  ridge  of  the  mountain,  called  the  "saddle,"  was  intact,  although 
the  old  crater  seemed  of  larger  circumference  than  before  the 
recent  eruption.  At  the  base  of  the  Soufriere  a  subsidence  of  100 
feet  had  occurred  for  an  area  of  a  square  mile.  The  bank  of 
volcanic  dust  that  prevented  the  sea  from  encroaching  farther  in- 
land at  Wallibou  was  being  gradually  washed  away.  The  lava  beds 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Soufriere  continued  to  emit  steam,  des- 
pite the  protracted  and  heavy  rainfall  that  had  occurred  ;  all  the  in- 
dications favored  the  opinion  that  the  mountain  had  returned  to  its 
old  state  of  repose. 


*  There  are  512  pages  in  this  volume.     The  sixty-four  full-page  half-tone  illustrations 
should  De  added  to  the  last  folio  number  (448)  indicated,  giving  a  total  of  512  pages. 


Lf/^ 


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